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This post is written to preserve the following news article.
High Energy Gamma Rays Go Slower than the Speed of Light?
This is a demonstration of the The Fourth Law of Motion.
By Fraser Cain – October 03, 2007 04:36 PM UTC | Physics
The speed of light is the speed of light, and that’s that. Right? Well, maybe not. Try and figure this out. Astronomers studying radiation coming from a distant galaxy found that the high energy gamma rays arrived a few minutes after the lower-energy photons, even though they were emitted at the same time. If true, this result would overturn Einstein’s theory of relativity, which says that all photons should move at the speed of light. Uh oh Einstein.
The discovery was made using the new MAGIC (Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov) telescope, located on a mountain top on the Canary island of La Palma. Since gamma rays are blocked by the Earth’s atmosphere, astronomers have figured out a clever trick to see them from the ground. When the gamma rays strike the atmosphere, they release a cascade of particles and radiation. The Cherenkov technique detects this cascade, and then works backwards to calculate the direction and energy level of the gamma rays. With a 17-metre detector, MAGIC is the largest telescope of its type.
The international team of researchers pointed the telescope at Markarian 501, a galaxy 500 million light-years away that contains a blazar – a supermassive black hole that periodically releases bursts of gamma rays. More material is falling into the black hole than it can consume, and so it gets squeezed into jets that fire off from the poles of the black hole at close to the speed of light. What astronomers call a “blazar” is when the jets of a supermassive black hole are pointed directly at the Earth.
Researchers sorted high- and low-energy gamma ray photons coming from the blazar with each flareup. Since all the radiation was emitted at the same time, and the speed of light is the speed of light, you would expect the high-energy photons to arrive at the same time. But nope, the high-energy photons showed up around 4 minutes later.
So what’s happening? Nobody knows, and this could turn into an entirely new field of physics. The researchers are proposing that maybe the radiation is interacting with “quantum foam”. This is a theoretical property of space itself, and predicted by quantum gravity theory – a competitor to string theory.
UC Davis News Release
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Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
Planets in our solar system move around the Sun on their own, without being pushed. Similarly, the electronic field swirls around the nucleus on its own; and so does light that travels at a tremendous speed in a straight line.
All these are instances of intrinsic motion. This is a natural property of substance. Intrinsic motion is visible in an environment where no friction and other external forces are present.
It is a misconception that substance has no intrinsic motion.
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Newton’s three laws of motion apply to matter of fixed mass only. These laws may be stated as follows:
(1) “Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.”
(2) “The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.”
(3) “To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or, the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.”
Newton’s laws do not take into account any variations in mass. The variation in mass corresponding to the range of motion of matter is infinitesimal and cannot be measured.
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Newton attributes to matter an “innate force” that makes each body persist in its state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion, yet he explicitly denies any active internal principle that can generate new motion without external forces. Newton thus introduces “vis insita, or innate force of matter” as a power of resisting changes of motion. This is what we now call inertia, codified in the First Law of Motion.
According to Newton, if a body is accelerated by an external force to a higher velocity, then the body shall continue to move at that higher velocity even after the external force is removed. The removal of force shall not change the higher velocity, which shall be maintained due to inertia.
This is like saying that if a spring is compressed by putting load on it, then the spring shall remain compressed even after that load is removed. There seems to be something missing in this picture of inertia.
For Newton, motion is explained by the interplay of inertia and forces in absolute space and time, codified in his three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. According to Newton, motion does not need a continuing cause; only changes in motion do.
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But Newton was not aware of the motion inside an atom, which is intrinsic to it. That motion is not being generated by some external force. From the center of the atom to its periphery, the volume increases, and with that increase in volume the mass thins out, and the intrinsic motion increases. There is some law hidden here that relates the mass of substance to its motion. The motion relates to the extents of that substance. If Newton had known this he could have come up with the following fourth law of motion:
(4) “There is a dynamic equilibrium between mass of substance and its motion in space. As mass decreases the motion in space increase.”
There is a lot packed in this fourth law. It seems to define the mass (thickness), and intrinsic motion (space) of substance in terms of each other. There appears to be an inverse relationship between mass on one hand and motion on the other. This relationship is maintained dynamically.
This means that an external force may temporarily disturb the equilibrium of mass and motion of the substance, but when that force is removed, the equilibrium shall return. If Newton’s inertia resists the change in motion caused by an external force, then it should also restore the original motion after the external force is removed. If a body is accelerated to a higher velocity by an external force, then, upon removal of that force, the body must return to its previous velocity, provided the body has not changed.
In other words, inertia is not just a one way street. If it resists an increase in motion by an external force, then it also restores the motion after the force is removed.
It is a misconception to think of inertia only as a resistance to change in motion of a body. Inertia also acts to restore intrinsic motion whenever it is changed.
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Motion needs to be redefined under the fourth law:
Motion has to do with thickness and volume of substance. Motion is continuous yet finite like the surface of a sphere. Therefore, it must repeat. This relates motion to space and time and gives it a cyclic nature. As volume decreases, the cycles increase and the substance becomes thick and increasingly centered. It then takes force to change that centeredness of motion. That resistance is called inertia. When that centeredness of motion is disturbed by an external force, it is restored when the external force is removed.
Nucleus of an atom has very small surface; motion is highly cyclic motion and centered; inertia is very high. In comparison, an electron has as much larger surface (equal to that of a hydrogen atom); motion is less cyclic and centered; inertia is much lower. Light has an extremely large surface; motion is low in cycles and centeredness; inertia is infinitesimal.
In a galaxy, the central black hole is extremely dense. As the distance from the black hole increases, the average thickness of the galactic bodies decreases and their motion increases. The galactic bodies appear to rotate around the black hole.
The velocity is low when highly centered and very high when not centered at all. Thus, velocity of substance depends on its thickness. The thickness of substance is difficult to change; therefore, motion of substance has a tendency to be restored after it is disturbed.
It is a misconception to think of motion limited to the velocity of a body or a particle. Motion is also occurring within the body or particle.
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The major concepts introduced in Chapter 8 is INERTIA. This concept is defined in Glossary: Postulate Mechanics.
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Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
The most obvious place to start looking for misconceptions is the substance of the universe. The physical substance comprises of matter and light, and it is studied by the subject of Physics. We are very familiar with both matter and light because we live on a planet made of matter, and we get our light from the sun. Matter forms our bodies, and light allows us to see. Light fits in the broad category of electromagnetic radiation.
The most obvious substance is matter. The thickness of matter is called “mass.” There are solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter. These states depend on how concentrated the mass particles are in space. But space does not have mass. Therefore, mass does not depend on the concentration of particles in space.
To examine mass, one needs to examine the smallest particle of matter. Such a particle is called an atom.
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Since atom is the smallest particle, there are no particles within the atom. But the atom may be smashed to generate subatomic particles. There is Particle Physics that describes numerous subatomic particles. But all such particles are formed during atomic interactions. These subatomic particles do not exist intrinsically within the atom, just like a drop of water does not exist within a lake.
It is a misconception that subatomic particles exist within the atom. Such particles are generated only from atomic interactions.
There are no particles floating in space inside the atom, as was postulated in the original Bohr’s model of an atom. Within the atom there would be continuity of substance and no space.
It is a misconception that a large part of atom is empty space. The whole volume of the atom is filled with substance.
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Inside the atom the mass of substance varies, but the substance is continuous. Substance with highest mass is at the center of the atom. Substance with least mass is at the periphery of the atom. There is a gradient of decreasing mass from the center towards the periphery.
There a very thick but small field of matter at the center of atom. It is called nucleus. Mass (thickness of matter) decreases on a small gradient from the center of the atom to the boundary of the nucleus. We may refer to it as “solid mass.”
Surrounding the nucleus is a thin but large field of electron. There is a sharp decline in mass at the boundary of the nucleus, but the continuity of substance is maintained. We may call this decline a transition from “solid” to “liquid” mass. In the electronic field, the “liquid mass” continues to decrease on a small gradient toward the periphery of the atom.
The atom is enveloped in an extremely thin but extremely large field of radiation that fills the space among atoms. There is a sudden decline in mass at the periphery of the atom, but the continuity of substance is maintained. We may call this decline a transition from “liquid” to “gaseous” mass. In the radiation field, the “gaseous mass” continues to decrease on a small gradient away from atom in the interstitial space.
Therefore, from the center of atom to its periphery, we have a continuity of substance with a decreasing gradient of mass. As mass decreases, the volume of substance increases, and so does its motion. It is like substance spreading out faster with increasing space.
It is a misconception that substance is not continuous within the atom, in the interstitial space, and throughout the universe.
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The field of radiation has extremely thin “gaseous mass.” It is so small that it cannot be measured and it is ignored. Thus, radiation is considered to have no mass. For example, light has no mass. However, experiments have shown that the light from the sun can push a large sail in interplanetary space.
It is a misconception that radiation has no mass. Radiation does have an extremely small amount of mass.
The thickness of radiation is so small that it cannot be measured as mass. So, it is measured in terms of “frequency” (m = 10-50 f). Einstein famously showed radiative energy to be equivalent to matter with the equation, E = mc2, and Planck constant relates this radiative energy to frequency (E = hf). Besides, radiation exists and it is substantial enough to be sensed. Thus, Postulate Mechanics declares radiation to also be a substance.
It is a misconception to not consider radiation as a substance. Besides matter, radiation is also a substance.
When matter thins out, it becomes radiation. When radiation thickens it becomes matter.
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We are used to considering “empty space” to be space empty of matter. But, such a space can still be filled with thinning radiation. Therefore, space can never be truly empty of substance. We notice that a volume is always filled with substance no matter how thin that substance is. Therefore, space is always defined by the extents of substance.
It is a misconception that space not filled with matter is completely empty. Space is always filled with substance of some thickness.
In fact, space may be defined as the spread of substance. The extents of substance define the boundary of space.
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The major concepts introduced in Chapter 7 are MASS, PARTICLE, ATOM, FIELD, NUCLEUS, ELECTRON, RADIATION, and SPACE. These concepts are defined in Glossary: Postulate Mechanics.
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Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
Ours is a knowable universe because we can come to know it by sensing it. We are also a part of this universe because we can sense and come to know ourselves.
If we are a part of this universe then how did the fundamental postulates of this universe come about?
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How the fundamental postulates of this universe came about can only be answered as follows:
These are possible postulates that attempt to explain the unknowable.
We come across the “religious” belief that God created this universe. However, God happens to be a part of the knowable universe, because God is knowable. This essentially means that the universe created itself. This is a variation of the first postulate above.
The answer from Kantian philosophy is that the ingredients of this universe exist as “thing in itself” independently of human perception, sensation, or sensory experience. This answer reduces to the second postulate above that the universe has always been there.
Phenomenology says, “What is sensed is the thing itself as experienced, not an inner proxy, but precisely as given in intuition—within limits.” This also reduces to the second postulate above.
Science says, “Sensations are effects of an underlying mind‑independent physical universe whose structure we infer.” This also reduces to the second postulate above.
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For the universe to create itself, there must have been an earlier version of the universe. God could be an earlier version that transformed itself into the current universe. This adds the idea of a cyclic universe; but essentially it is also a variation of the second postulate above.
We may conclude,
The basis for the universe has always been there. How it was created initially is unknowable.
The Vedas assert rightly that the universe has neither a beginning nor an end.
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The basis of the universe is made up of certain postulates. The postulates provide meaning in the form of sensations. The outcome of the sensations is the knowable universe.
So, the postulates that make up the SELF are the same that make up the UNIVERSE.
In the ancient Vedic religions, such as, Hinduism, the Nirākār Brahman uses Māyā to arise as Sākār Brahman. The Nirākār Brahman is considered to be a reality without attributes. Māyā is considered to be the process that generates attributes. And Sākār Brahman is considered to be the reality with attributes. We may say that the Nirākār Brahman is “unknowable,” Maya represents the basic “postulates.” Sākār Brahman is the outcome as the knowable “universe.”
Thus, the Postulate Mechanics parallels the Vedic religions.
In Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) God is postulated as the source of all creation. God is then assigned the attribute of omniscient (all-knowing) among others. But God itself is presented as a mystery. Here God is something that needs to be unpacked and understood.
We come to the conclusion that,
The basis of the universe are certain postulates that give meaning to the universe in the form of sensations.
These postulates are inherent to the universe and also to us. So, the postulates that make up the universe are the same that make up the SELF. The self then assimilates the sensations to perceive the universe.
As sensations may assimilate differently from person to person, different perceptions and concepts of the universe may arise.
We may not know the postulates, but our perceptions and concepts can help us trace back to discover the underlying postulates. As we discover the postulates we come to know both the universe and ourselves so clearly that all our aberrations drop away.
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The major concepts introduced in Chapter 1 are CREATION, GOD, VEDIC RELIGIONS, and ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS. These concepts are defined in Glossary: Postulate Mechanics.
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Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
Enlightenment lies in restoring awareness from identification back to knowingness. This depends on a power hidden deep within us.
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The Vedic religions refer to this power as Brahman. The origins of the word BRAHMAN has the sense of “to swell, expand, grow, enlarge; to make firm, strong.” It indicates an active or manifest principle, yielding the sense of an expanding, sustaining power. In the Rigveda, brahman often refers to the potent word, hymn, or sacred formula—speech endowed with a mysterious, effective power in ritual.
The Abrahamic religions refer to this power as God. The origins of the word GOD has the sense of “that which is invoked.” It indicates the mysterious and awe inspiring power called upon in prayer or sacrifice.
This power has been invoked since ancient times to help overcome human limitations, ignorance, and suffering.
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“Piercing the veil” signifies overcoming spiritual, mental, or physical barriers to directly experience this power deep within. Various methods have been used to invoke this power, such as,
(1) PRAYER AND DEVOTION: Here a person praises God admitting faults and seeking forgiveness, showing gratitude for blessings, and asking for personal needs or intercession .
(2) STILLNESS AND MEDITATION: Here a person sits quietly observing thoughts without judgment and being present in the moment. He may concentrate on a single point, such as the breath or a word (mantra) to quiet the mind; or release tension by bringing awareness to different body parts; or focus on cultivating compassion and kindness toward oneself and others.
(3) FAITH IN THE ATONEMENT: Here a person repents his sins and strives to live in obedience to the Gospel. He submits his will to God, especially during trials, acknowledging them as opportunities for growth. He recognizes that return to God’s presence is possible only through the merits, mercy, and grace of the Messiah. And, he places complete trust in Christ’s ability to save, which brings peace and removes fear.
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In Postulate Mechanics, a person looks rather than thinks. He focuses on what does not make sense. He looks at it more and more closely until it starts to make sense. This is the mode of mindfulness. The person applies mindfulness to both misconception and anomalies.
Immediate restoration of awareness towards knowingness starts with the clearing of misconceptions. Most misconceptions have come about through interrupted observation, misunderstanding of language and suppression of anomalies. The discipline followed in Postulate Mechanics is,
Therefore, when reading, a person must always look up the meaning of words that do not seem to fit in the sentence. Upon encountering a difficulty, he must not flinch and look away. He must follow the trail of what does not make sense, until it clarifies.
Enlightenment occurs as one approaches the resolution of all major misconceptions and anomalies.
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The major concepts introduced in Chapter 6 are PRAYER, DEVOTION, STILLNESS, MEDITATION, FAITH and MINDFULNESS. These concepts are defined in Glossary: Postulate Mechanics.
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