Vinaire's Blog
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Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
The concept of particle has evolved over time from a matter particle to an atom to subatomic particles, quanta, etc. A matter particle is generally visualized as a tiny hard ball, but this is not the case with subatomic particles. But all particles have a certain size in space, and duration in time. They are treated as discrete, localized and countable.
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Originally, a particle was understood to be a small part of matter that obviously had a fixed boundary and a center of mass. Example of this would be a dust particle, or a particle of sand. In Chemistry, a particle was related to the smallest part of substance that took part in chemical reactions. Ultimately, a particle of matter was reduced to the idea of an atom or a molecule. Its boundaries were considered to be well defined and fixed, and it had a center of mass.
Mechanically, a particle is idealized as a hard, spherical billiard ball that has a point-like center of mass, and a definite position and velocity at each instant. It follows continuous trajectories determined by forces, as in Newtonian mechanics and special relativity.
The classical feature of a particle is a point-like “center of mass” at which all its mass is balanced. The matter particle may be treated mechanically, as if all its mass is concentrated at its center of mass.
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The smallest particle of matter is called atom, which is so small that it is invisible to the eye. It was visualized as spherical in shape and volume, with mass distributed inside it homogeneously. And, so it had a center of mass.
It was a big surprise when, at the end of 19th century, it was discovered that mass was not homogeneous inside the atom. Experiments revealed the atom had an extremely small and dense nucleus at its center that was positively charged. The nucleus was surrounded by much less dense cloud of negatively charged electrons. There was a sharp decline in mass from nucleus to the surrounding electronic layer; but the mass within the atom generally decreased as the distance from the center increased. But this internal structure was such that the atom could still be treated as a matter particle with a center of mass.
Most dense were the neutrons that occupied the center of the nucleus, while, at the surface of the nucleus, were slightly less dense protons. Similarly, the most dense electron layer was closest to the nucleus at the center, and the least dense electron layer was at the periphery of the atom. Charge (tension) existed at the interface between nucleus and electronic layer, where the sharp decline in mass occurred.
Neutrons, protons and electrons are detected as particles only during atomic interactions. Some models assume that these subatomic particles already exist as point particles within the atom, and so atoms mostly consist of space; but this is an arbitrary assumption not supported by logic. Only Faraday’s theory explains logically the decreasing mass from the center of the atom to its periphery, along with the continuity of the substance throughout.
It is a misconception that subatomic particles exist as point-particles within the atom. The subatomic particles are generated during atomic processes.
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Subatomic particles are much smaller in mass than an atom. They are detected in cosmic rays and during atomic processes.
As described above, atoms have an internal structure in which mass decreases with increase in distance from the center. The subatomic particles generated during atomic interactions have a variety of different masses; but all such masses are smaller than the mass of an atom. The subatomic particles may also be visualized as spheres, but, those with lighter mass lose their point-like center of mass.
Protons and neutrons have internal structure of smaller quarks, while electrons are elementary particles as they do not contain internal structures. They are the fundamental, indivisible building blocks of the universe. The Standard Model lists 17 different elementary particles.
These elementary particles are distinguished by their mass. The lesser is the mass, the higher is their intrinsic motion. We may place these elementary particles on a Spectrum of Substance according to their mass.
The concept of elementary particles is based on “action at a distance” ideology, that postulates void as their background. Faraday’s lines of force, however, support the idea that a particle is a dense region, which is continuous with its thin background. There is no absolute emptiness as void.
It is a misconception that the background of particles is a void. The particles actually maintain continuity among them by having continuity with their background.
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Mass thins out within the atom with increasing distance from the center because it is filling a larger volume. Some universal constant is in play here. There is an intrinsic motion of substance that has a wavelength and a frequency. The increased volume shows up in the increased “wavelength” of the substance. The decreased mass shows up in the decreased “frequency” of the substance. As wavelength increases, the frequency decreases.
The particle of this substance may be viewed as a sphere whose circumference is equal to the wavelength. The intrinsic motion of this particle is finite, but continuous and never-ending like its spherical surface. This makes the intrinsic motion of the particle equivalent to the spinning of sphere at a certain frequency. The frequency would represent the mass of the particle, whereas wavelength would represent its size. As the wavelength increases the frequency decreases keeping some equilibrium. Thus, there exists a universal balance among the mass, size, and intrinsic motion of the particle.
When the mass is extremely dense, as in the case of the nucleus of atom, the wavelength is very small, and the frequency is very high. High frequency means that the particle is going to be very centered, which leads to high inertia and small velocity. Small wavelength means the size of the particle is going to be very small. The “particle nature” (inertia) dominates, and the wave nature is very subdued.
When the mass becomes diluted, as in the case of electrons, the wavelength is larger and the frequency is lower. The particle is less centered, which means that the center of mass is no longer a sharp point. Inertia lessens, and the velocity increases. The size of the particle increases. The “particle nature” (inertia) no longer dominates as the wave nature also becomes obvious. This is the wave-particle duality of the electron.
When the mass becomes extremely diluted, as in the case of radiation, the wavelength is very large and the frequency is extremely low. The particle is not at all centered. There is very little inertia, and the velocity is extremely large. The size of the particle is very large, much larger than that of the atom. The “particle nature” (inertia) is subdued, and the wave nature dominates.
As an example, the extremely dense proton in a hydrogen atom appears like a dot at the center where more than 99% of the mass is concentrated. Its wavelength is very small but it is spinning at a high rate. The rest of the atom represents a single electron that takes up more than 99% of the volume of the atom. The electron has a much larger wavelength than the proton. Therefore, in a hydrogen atom, the proton resides within the electron. The atom is enveloped in a radiative environment. We may say that the atom resides within a photon of a much larger wavelength.
In general, as a subatomic particle becomes less dense its wavelength increases, and so does its size.
It is a misconception to think that subatomic particles are point-particles whose size may be disregarded. The wave characteristic of a particle exists within the particle itself.
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A subatomic particle has the intrinsic aspects of substantiality and motion that balance each other. The concept of matter emphasizes substantiality. The concept of energy emphasizes motion. The two are very different concepts and should not be confused with each other.
Matter represents thickness of substance, and its key characteristic is the inertia of the particle. Energy represents the intrinsic motion of substance, and its key characteristic is the velocity of the particle in space. We observe that inertia and velocity maintain a dynamic balance. For example, the velocity of light is extremely large, but it is still finite because it is being kept in check by the inertia of light.
There is an equivalence between matter and energy. This equivalence is stated in Einstein’s equation E = mc2. But this equivalence does not mean that matter and energy convert into each other. It points only to a dynamic balance that was detailed in the previous section.
It is a misconception to view energy as an aspect of mass and to think that energy condenses into matter. Actually energy is an aspect of motion. Matter and energy establish a dynamic equilibrium.
A “material” particle in space is defined by its center of mass. An “energy” particle is defined by the amount of substance participating in an interaction. The laws of mechanics fail to apply when the center-of-mass cannot be treated as point-like as in the case of subatomic particles and the quanta of radiation.
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Looking at a spinning top we know that the faster it spins, the more centered and stable it is in space. The intrinsic motion of a subatomic particle, as modeled in the section “Particle and Wave” gives an idea of spin in terms of cyclic motion being equivalent to motion on a sphere. The greater is the frequency of substance, the faster is its spin, and the more centered and stable is the particle.
Thus, the frequency translates into the inertia of the particle, just as the wavelength translates into the velocity of that particle in space. The mathematical description of spin of a subatomic particle more or less refers to its centeredness or inertia. Similarly. The mathematics of the wave function of a subatomic particle seems to refer to its cycle motion and wavelength. They are all related.
It is a misconception to think that mathematics explains the reality. Mathematics serves only as internal logic of science. It is mechanical rather than organic.
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A particle is a unit of substance whose size is proportional to its wavelength. Electron as a particle is 2000 times bigger than a proton. Photon as a particle is more than 200,000 times bigger than an electron. The boundary of a particle is determined by the cycles of motion of which it is constructed. A particle has the property of centeredness, which is proportional to its frequency. This centeredness is manifested as inertia when attempt is made to change its inherent motion.
It is misconception to think that all subatomic particles are smaller in size than the atom.
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The “particle characteristic” of a matter particle comes from its point-like center-of-mass. The location of this center-of-mass denotes the precise, mathematical location of the matter particle. As the mass of a subatomic particle decreases along with the increase in its volume, it becomes “diluted” and dynamic. As a result, the center-of-mass is no loner point-like but become diffused. The “center-of-mass” of the subatomic particle no longer has a precise location. It is like the location in space itself expanding and becoming magnified.
This leads to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927. This principle states that it is fundamentally impossible to measure certain pairs of physical properties—specifically position and momentum—of a subatomic particle simultaneously with arbitrary precision. The more precisely one property is known, the less precisely the other can be known.
Mathematics treats locations in space to be point-like and treats the location of a subatomic particle with probabilities. What is detected is an interaction, which is assumed to be the whole particle at that location. Actually, the particles location is spread over a finite volume of space. This is seen as a field in the quantum theories.
The idea of superposition (multiple states at once) of quantum mechanics also comes from this spread of the particle (center-of mass) over a volume. The idea of entanglement (instantaneous connection) also have the same basis.
It is a misconception to think that the subatomic particles have a point-like center-of-mass, and that they can be treated as point-particles.
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A quantum is the minimum, discrete, and indivisible amount of substance involved in an atomic interaction. It was used by Einstein for particles of radiation that have no mass, and which are all motion. But the particles of radiation have infinitesimal mass, that means the mass has enormously thinned out as it is spread over a very large volume of the particle.
It is a misconception to think that a quantum is wave-like, or have some kind of a fixed form.
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Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
Gravity is not very different from Inertia. Inertia helps to maintain the intrinsic motion of a body as related to its mass (thickness). Gravity helps to maintain the intrinsic motion of a system of bodies as related to the distribution of their masses.
Just like inertia, gravity is an innate condition of harmony. If there is any force it arises only in case of deviation to restore the condition of harmony.
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The sole purpose of inertia is to keep the intrinsic motion of a body in equilibrium with its mass. Inertial force arises only when that state of equilibrium is disturbed. That state of equilibrium is a harmonic of oneness.
Suppose there is a shopping cart, full of groceries, sitting at rest. When we push that cart we feel a resistance even when the cart can roll easily. That resistance is an inertial force that is trying the cart’s equilibrium state of rest not to be disturbed. That resistance makes us aware of the substantiality of the cart.
Suppose there is a rock floating in outer space in its equilibrium state of intrinsic motion. When we push that rock, we get a sense of its substantiality by its inertial resistance. We may push harder and increase the motion of the rock. But as soon as we stop pushing, the inertia of that rock acts to restore its intrinsic motion.
The speed of light is finite and constant. That is so because of light’s state of equilibrium. It has extremely small mass that is in equilibrium with its motion. If light had no mass, its speed would be infinite.
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The moons revolve around their planet, the planets revolve around their sun, and the suns revolve around the center of their galaxies in perfect equilibrium. Such an equilibrium is dynamic in the sense that it continually adjusts to changing conditions. This describes the motion of the heavenly bodies in free space.
In this free space, an object with infinite mass shall be fixed in its location because its inertia is infinite. Another object with lesser mass shall have lesser inertia, and it will have motion relative to the first object. It may seem that the first object also has motion relative to the second object but that would be an illusion. We thus have a measure of absolute motion in terms of inertia.
The most massive body with maximum inertia shall be at the center of the galaxy. We recognize that as a black hole. All other bodies in the galaxy are in an equilibrium of motion relative to this black hole according to their mass or inertia. Their position in space at any instant is determined by this equilibrium. We recognize this equilibrium as GRAVITY.
Gravity is a phenomenon very similar to inertia. The sole purpose of gravity is to keep the intrinsic motion of bodies of a system in dynamic equilibrium with the distribution of the mass of those bodies in that system. The bodies maintain their individual paths. Any deviation from the paths immediately gives rise to gravitational forces that restore the bodies back to their paths. Thus, gravity keeps the whole system stable.
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Newton interpreted gravity as an innate force that acted at a distance. However, he was at a loss to explain how force acted so. Newton provided a formula to calculate the force of gravity between two bodies. But the moment a third body was introduced into the system, this formula fails to predict the motion.
Faraday theorized that force acted at a distance through lines of force. This was as if the substantiality of mass was diluted with distance. Maxwell applied mathematics to this idea, and developed into electromagnetic fields that gave structure to light.
Einstein was also inspired by Faraday and looked at space itself as a dynamic field. He saw the lines of force as the curvature of spacetime related to mass and energy. Massive objects warped the fabric of spacetime, creating paths along which those objects moved. He used extremely complex mathematics to explain the dynamic nature of gravity.
Thus, a system of two or more bodies always forms a dynamic configuration such that their thicknesses and motions, by an inverse relationship, are in equilibrium at all times. For example, the Sun, all its planets and their moons are dynamically aligned in such a way that their masses and motions are in equilibrium.
But mathematics only provides an approximation.
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Postulate Mechanics does not see gravity as a force. Instead, it sees gravity as the natural tendency of a system to dynamically arrange itself such that there is an equilibrium among all the thicknesses of substance and its motions involved at all times.
Gravitational forces arise to restore the harmony of motion in a system only when it is disturbed.
There is no field of gravity because the concept of field applies to substance, which is diluted as lines of force. Gravity is neither substance nor force. Gravity is a condition of equilibrium.
It is misconception to think that there is a field of gravity, and that a particle called graviton is possible.
Thus, we see the manifestation of gravity in the dynamic configurations of the galaxies, the planetary systems, and in the internal structure of atoms.
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In gravitation, there is an equilibrium of movement as among the bodies of the solar system. The moon revolves around the earth on a path determined by this equilibrium.
The objects on earth also want to revolve around the earth, but their equilibrium path is less than the radius of the earth. So, they are pushed against the earth. This is not like the attraction between two opposite charges, as in electromagnetism. It is actually a movement that is restrained, which gives us our weight.
The intrinsic motion of objects on Earth pushes them against the surface of Earth. This accounts for Earth’s gravity.
This means that a body will levitate on the surface of earth only when it is so heavy that its natural equilibrium path will have a radius greater than the radius of the Earth.
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The major concepts introduced in Chapter 9 is GRAVITY. This concept is defined in Glossary: Postulate Mechanics.
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This post is written to preserve the following news article.
High Energy Gamma Rays Go Slower than the Speed of Light?
This is a demonstration of the The Fourth Law of Motion.
By Fraser Cain – October 03, 2007 04:36 PM UTC | Physics
The speed of light is the speed of light, and that’s that. Right? Well, maybe not. Try and figure this out. Astronomers studying radiation coming from a distant galaxy found that the high energy gamma rays arrived a few minutes after the lower-energy photons, even though they were emitted at the same time. If true, this result would overturn Einstein’s theory of relativity, which says that all photons should move at the speed of light. Uh oh Einstein.
The discovery was made using the new MAGIC (Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov) telescope, located on a mountain top on the Canary island of La Palma. Since gamma rays are blocked by the Earth’s atmosphere, astronomers have figured out a clever trick to see them from the ground. When the gamma rays strike the atmosphere, they release a cascade of particles and radiation. The Cherenkov technique detects this cascade, and then works backwards to calculate the direction and energy level of the gamma rays. With a 17-metre detector, MAGIC is the largest telescope of its type.
The international team of researchers pointed the telescope at Markarian 501, a galaxy 500 million light-years away that contains a blazar – a supermassive black hole that periodically releases bursts of gamma rays. More material is falling into the black hole than it can consume, and so it gets squeezed into jets that fire off from the poles of the black hole at close to the speed of light. What astronomers call a “blazar” is when the jets of a supermassive black hole are pointed directly at the Earth.
Researchers sorted high- and low-energy gamma ray photons coming from the blazar with each flareup. Since all the radiation was emitted at the same time, and the speed of light is the speed of light, you would expect the high-energy photons to arrive at the same time. But nope, the high-energy photons showed up around 4 minutes later.
So what’s happening? Nobody knows, and this could turn into an entirely new field of physics. The researchers are proposing that maybe the radiation is interacting with “quantum foam”. This is a theoretical property of space itself, and predicted by quantum gravity theory – a competitor to string theory.
UC Davis News Release
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Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
Planets in our solar system move around the Sun on their own, without being pushed. Similarly, the electronic field swirls around the nucleus on its own; and so does light that travels at a tremendous speed in a straight line.
All these are instances of intrinsic motion. This is a natural property of substance. Intrinsic motion is visible in an environment where no friction and other external forces are present.
It is a misconception that substance has no intrinsic motion.
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Newton’s three laws of motion apply to matter of fixed mass only. These laws may be stated as follows:
(1) “Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.”
(2) “The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.”
(3) “To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or, the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.”
Newton’s laws do not take into account any variations in mass. The variation in mass corresponding to the range of motion of matter is infinitesimal and cannot be measured.
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Newton attributes to matter an “innate force” that makes each body persist in its state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion, yet he explicitly denies any active internal principle that can generate new motion without external forces. Newton thus introduces “vis insita, or innate force of matter” as a power of resisting changes of motion. This is what we now call inertia, codified in the First Law of Motion.
According to Newton, if a body is accelerated by an external force to a higher velocity, then the body shall continue to move at that higher velocity even after the external force is removed. The removal of force shall not change the higher velocity, which shall be maintained due to inertia.
This is like saying that if a spring is compressed by putting load on it, then the spring shall remain compressed even after that load is removed. There seems to be something missing in this picture of inertia.
For Newton, motion is explained by the interplay of inertia and forces in absolute space and time, codified in his three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. According to Newton, motion does not need a continuing cause; only changes in motion do.
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But Newton was not aware of the motion inside an atom, which is intrinsic to it. That motion is not being generated by some external force. From the center of the atom to its periphery, the volume increases, and with that increase in volume the mass thins out, and the intrinsic motion increases. There is some law hidden here that relates the mass of substance to its motion. The motion relates to the extents of that substance. If Newton had known this he could have come up with the following fourth law of motion:
(4) “There is a dynamic equilibrium between mass of substance and its motion in space. As mass decreases the motion in space increase.”
There is a lot packed in this fourth law. It seems to define the mass (thickness), and intrinsic motion (space) of substance in terms of each other. There appears to be an inverse relationship between mass on one hand and motion on the other. This relationship is maintained dynamically.
This means that an external force may temporarily disturb the equilibrium of mass and motion of the substance, but when that force is removed, the equilibrium shall return. If Newton’s inertia resists the change in motion caused by an external force, then it should also restore the original motion after the external force is removed. If a body is accelerated to a higher velocity by an external force, then, upon removal of that force, the body must return to its previous velocity, provided the body has not changed.
In other words, inertia is not just a one way street. If it resists an increase in motion by an external force, then it also restores the motion after the force is removed.
It is a misconception to think of inertia only as a resistance to change in motion of a body. Inertia also acts to restore intrinsic motion whenever it is changed.
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Motion needs to be redefined under the fourth law:
Motion has to do with thickness and volume of substance. Motion is continuous yet finite like the surface of a sphere. Therefore, it must repeat. This relates motion to space and time and gives it a cyclic nature. As volume decreases, the cycles increase and the substance becomes thick and increasingly centered. It then takes force to change that centeredness of motion. That resistance is called inertia. When that centeredness of motion is disturbed by an external force, it is restored when the external force is removed.
Nucleus of an atom has very small surface; motion is highly cyclic motion and centered; inertia is very high. In comparison, an electron has as much larger surface (equal to that of a hydrogen atom); motion is less cyclic and centered; inertia is much lower. Light has an extremely large surface; motion is low in cycles and centeredness; inertia is infinitesimal.
In a galaxy, the central black hole is extremely dense. As the distance from the black hole increases, the average thickness of the galactic bodies decreases and their motion increases. The galactic bodies appear to rotate around the black hole.
The velocity is low when highly centered and very high when not centered at all. Thus, velocity of substance depends on its thickness. The thickness of substance is difficult to change; therefore, motion of substance has a tendency to be restored after it is disturbed.
It is a misconception to think of motion limited to the velocity of a body or a particle. Motion is also occurring within the body or particle.
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The major concepts introduced in Chapter 8 is INERTIA. This concept is defined in Glossary: Postulate Mechanics.
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Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
The most obvious place to start looking for misconceptions is the substance of the universe. The physical substance comprises of matter and light, and it is studied by the subject of Physics. We are very familiar with both matter and light because we live on a planet made of matter, and we get our light from the sun. Matter forms our bodies, and light allows us to see. Light fits in the broad category of electromagnetic radiation.
The most obvious substance is matter. The thickness of matter is called “mass.” There are solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter. These states depend on how concentrated the mass particles are in space. But space does not have mass. Therefore, mass does not depend on the concentration of particles in space.
To examine mass, one needs to examine the smallest particle of matter. Such a particle is called an atom.
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Since atom is the smallest particle, there are no particles within the atom. But the atom may be smashed to generate subatomic particles. There is Particle Physics that describes numerous subatomic particles. But all such particles are formed during atomic interactions. These subatomic particles do not exist intrinsically within the atom, just like a drop of water does not exist within a lake.
It is a misconception that subatomic particles exist within the atom. Such particles are generated only from atomic interactions.
There are no particles floating in space inside the atom, as was postulated in the original Bohr’s model of an atom. Within the atom there would be continuity of substance and no space.
It is a misconception that a large part of atom is empty space. The whole volume of the atom is filled with substance.
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Inside the atom the mass of substance varies, but the substance is continuous. Substance with highest mass is at the center of the atom. Substance with least mass is at the periphery of the atom. There is a gradient of decreasing mass from the center towards the periphery.
There a very thick but small field of matter at the center of atom. It is called nucleus. Mass (thickness of matter) decreases on a small gradient from the center of the atom to the boundary of the nucleus. We may refer to it as “solid mass.”
Surrounding the nucleus is a thin but large field of electron. There is a sharp decline in mass at the boundary of the nucleus, but the continuity of substance is maintained. We may call this decline a transition from “solid” to “liquid” mass. In the electronic field, the “liquid mass” continues to decrease on a small gradient toward the periphery of the atom.
The atom is enveloped in an extremely thin but extremely large field of radiation that fills the space among atoms. There is a sudden decline in mass at the periphery of the atom, but the continuity of substance is maintained. We may call this decline a transition from “liquid” to “gaseous” mass. In the radiation field, the “gaseous mass” continues to decrease on a small gradient away from atom in the interstitial space.
Therefore, from the center of atom to its periphery, we have a continuity of substance with a decreasing gradient of mass. As mass decreases, the volume of substance increases, and so does its motion. It is like substance spreading out faster with increasing space.
It is a misconception that substance is not continuous within the atom, in the interstitial space, and throughout the universe.
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The field of radiation has extremely thin “gaseous mass.” It is so small that it cannot be measured and it is ignored. Thus, radiation is considered to have no mass. For example, light has no mass. However, experiments have shown that the light from the sun can push a large sail in interplanetary space.
It is a misconception that radiation has no mass. Radiation does have an extremely small amount of mass.
The thickness of radiation is so small that it cannot be measured as mass. So, it is measured in terms of “frequency” (m = 10-50 f). Einstein famously showed radiative energy to be equivalent to matter with the equation, E = mc2, and Planck constant relates this radiative energy to frequency (E = hf). Besides, radiation exists and it is substantial enough to be sensed. Thus, Postulate Mechanics declares radiation to also be a substance.
It is a misconception to not consider radiation as a substance. Besides matter, radiation is also a substance.
When matter thins out, it becomes radiation. When radiation thickens it becomes matter.
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We are used to considering “empty space” to be space empty of matter. But, such a space can still be filled with thinning radiation. Therefore, space can never be truly empty of substance. We notice that a volume is always filled with substance no matter how thin that substance is. Therefore, space is always defined by the extents of substance.
It is a misconception that space not filled with matter is completely empty. Space is always filled with substance of some thickness.
In fact, space may be defined as the spread of substance. The extents of substance define the boundary of space.
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The major concepts introduced in Chapter 7 are MASS, PARTICLE, ATOM, FIELD, NUCLEUS, ELECTRON, RADIATION, and SPACE. These concepts are defined in Glossary: Postulate Mechanics.
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