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Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART III – THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 14: Atoms in Motion (John Herapath 1790 – 1868)

According to Herapath the relationship among temperature, pressure, and density applied to the supposed aethereal medium also. He basically came up with the kinetic theory of gases on his own. His particles moved by an intrinsic motion with perfect freedom. Herapath substituted Newton’s repulsive forces among the particles of gases by their intrinsic motion. He theorized that gas heats up on sudden compression and cools down on sudden expansion because of change in velocity of the particles.

Chapter 15: “Active Molecules” – Brownian Motion (Robert Brown 1773 – 1858)

Brownian motion is an effect arising from the imbalance of molecular impacts on a free microscopic particle. In this sense, molecules have a primitive form of life as they have self-propelled motion. An inherent motion of the molecules underlies the Kinetic theory of gases. 

Chapter 16: The Tragedy of a Genius (John James Waterston 1811 – 1883)

Waterston was the first to introduce the conception that heat and temperature are to be measured by vis viva (kinetic energy). He showed that under equal pressure and volume, the root mean square velocity is inversely proportional to mass density. Waterston, thus, not only corrected the relationship of temperature to velocity but also gave the first statement of the law of equipartition of energy in a mixture at thermal equilibrium. 

Chapter 17: The Conservation of Energy–The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (James Prescott Joule 1818 – 1889)

Joule firmly established the idea that mechanical energy could be transformed into internal energy and thus produce the same effect as “heating” a body, and that a fixed ratio existed between mechanical work and thermal units. Heat is properly defined as energy in transit due solely to a temperature difference.  Joule saw that chemical energy in battery is converted to electrical energy in the circuit and that this in turn is converted into heat. This ultimately established the Law of Conservation of Energy.

Chapter 18: The Range of Molecular Speeds in a Gas (James Clerk Maxwell 1831 – 1879)

Maxwell brilliantly deduced the distribution of molecular speeds in a gas at equilibrium at any temperature. This great step forward in the understanding of the behavior of the elementary particles of gases represents one of the major advances in the progress of the atomic theory of matter. Besides, Maxwell provided a formula for the coefficient of viscosity of a gas which showed this quantity to be independent of pressure, a most unexpected and surprising result.

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MAIN POINTS

1. Atoms and molecules move by an intrinsic motion with perfect freedom.
2. The root mean square velocity is inversely proportional to mass density under equal pressure and volume.
3. The molecular speeds in a gas at any temperature has a certain distribution.
4. The imbalance of molecular impacts on a free microscopic particle makes it move randomly.
5. Particles have kinetic energy that depends on their velocity.
6. Temperature depends upon the velocity of such particles.
7. Heat and temperature are to be measured by kinetic energy.
8. Heat is energy in transit due solely to a temperature difference.
9. Kinetic heat energy of a gas is equally divided between linear and rotational energy.
10. Fixed ratio exists between mechanical work and thermal units produced.
11. Energy takes different forms but the total energy is conserved.

THEORY
The atomic and molecular particles have intrinsic motion. This is expressed as inherent kinetic energy. This energy manifests as momentum, heat, chemical activity, and electrical force. It gives rise to the properties of pressure, temperature, volume  and density of gases. The total momentum and energy are conserved.

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Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART II – THE FOUNDATIONS OF ATOMIC CHEMISTRY

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 10: The Birth of Atomic Theory (John Dalton 1766 – 1844)

Dalton was investigating why oxygen and nitrogen remained mixed in air and did not separate, when he accidentally discovered that oxygen and nitrogen combined in definite ratios. Dalton had a physical particle picture of gases, which led him to assume that a chemical reaction is only the combination of an atom of one substance with that of another. This led to the inference that the relative weights of the constituent atoms in compounds could be determined. This established the foundation of atomic chemistry.

Chapter 11: The Volume Combination of Gases (Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac 1778 – 1850)

Gay Lussac showed that if gases enter into chemical reactions, they do so in numerically simple volume ratios, and the volume of the products, if gaseous, may be expressed by simple integral numerical ratios to the volume of the original reactants. This is true for gases only, where the force of cohesion between atoms and molecules is minimum, and where most of the volume is due to the “atmosphere of heat” surrounding the nuclei. The volume ratio is, most likely, also the ratio of atoms and molecules that combine.

Chapter 12: Atoms and Molecules – Avogadro’s Law (Amedeo Avogadro 1776 – 1856)

Avogadro’s principle is that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. By this principle, Avogadro correctly deduced the chemical formula for water, ammonia, nitrous oxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. However, for the principle to be valid it was necessary to introduce a new hypothesis, namely, that the ultimate particles of many of the elementary gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen were molecules i.e., combinations of two, or sometimes more, atoms.

Chapter 13: The Search for Primordial Material (William Prout 1785 – 1850)

The notion that all matter is composed of the same primary substance and that when organized in different ways produces the various elements, occurs far back in antiquity. In Daltonian theory, atoms were distinguished by their different masses. Prout hypothesized that the atoms of all elements are simply combinations of hydrogen. 

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MAIN POINTS

1. Atoms of different substances combine in definite ratios.
2. A chemical reaction is such combination of atoms of different substances.
3. The force of cohesion between atoms and molecules is minimum in gaseous phase.
4. Gases combine in numerically simple volume ratios.
5. Equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
6. The ultimate particles of many elementary gases are combinations of two, or sometimes more, atoms.
7. The atoms of all elements are simply combinations of hydrogen. 

THEORY
The atom is a spinning nucleus surrounded by a vortex of energy substance. All its mass is concentrated in the nucleus of negligible volume. All its volume comprises of the energy vortex of negligible mass. All different atoms have masses that are multiples of the mass of hydrogen atom. These atoms combine in simple and definite ratios.

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