Category Archives: Physics Book

The Physics Book.

Perception and Reality

September 14, 2020 – 5:14 PM
How your perception is your reality, according to psychologists | Well+Good

Matter is the visible layer of the universe. It is made up of discrete particles. These particles have distinct properties of mass and inertia. The next layer is made up of particles of electricity. They have much less mass and inertia, but they carry the property of charge. The subsequent layers are made up of electromagnetic radiation where “particle” properties are gradually replaced by “wave” properties. Instead of mass or charge, we have the property of “frequency”.

Underlying “mass” we have layers of “charge” and “quanta.”

If the layer of matter is solid energy, the next layer of electricity is like a thick fluid of energy. The subsequent layers of electromagnetic radiation are like fluid energy that is gradually thinning in consistency. The “particle” property is slowly replaced by the “wave” property as the fluid energy becomes increasingly thinner.

These layers continually decrease in their consistency and become less particle-like and more fluid-like.

From material to electricity to electromagnetic layers the flow of energy also lessens in curvature from a tight ball to circles of increasing radius until the path becomes almost a straight line. This gives a vortex-like picture of the atom, galaxy and the universe. at the center of which is the nucleus, or a black hole, and the energy becoming increasingly fluid and thinning toward some indistinct periphery.

There is a vortex-like configuration of energy that defines the atom.

The nucleus of an atom is made up of very condensed energy that appears as a solid ball. Electrons are 1840 times “thinner”, and less curved in their path. Schrödinger’s equation simply describes the flow of a very thick fluid-like energy that is curving on itself but has not yet become as condensed as the solid nucleus. Other quantum “particles” are fluid energy that simply varies in consistency and curvature.

All quantum “particles” are actually fluid energy of thick but differing consistencies.

The idea of “particle” comes from the impact it generates upon collision. This impact furnishes the ideas of mass and force. If you magnify this quantum “particle” it will appear to be made of a force field spread in space. This is the same thing as fluid energy of a certain consistency. This consistency gets thinner as the “frequency” decreases. So, the bottom most layer of this universe shall have no consistency or “frequency”. This is the significance of the Higgs boson. It is the fundamental layer of the universe that coagulates to form all the layers above it.

Higgs boson is fluid energy of lightest consistency that coagulates to form all the layers above it.

When we look at atom as a particle, we shall see it as consisting of all layers—mass of highest consistency at the center to the Higgs boson of least consistency at the periphery of a vortex. What is beyond the Higgs boson is as yet unknown. Maybe those unknown layers beyond are somehow made up of emotion and thought. The question would then become, “What is beyond thought?” Ultimately, we’ll have to admit the presence of some unknown dimension from which thought, emotion, energy and their innate motion arise and, then vanish back into it with the pattern of layers maintained eternally. This is the ultimate study of creation and destruction.

Beyond Higgs boson is some other dimension.

We may refer to the unknown dimension as BRAHMAN or GOD, but that does not make it knowable. We have simply given it another label. This dimension cannot be accessed through reasoning because the human intellect lies in the energy dimension. But it may be accessed in deep state of meditation.

The Isha Upanishad states, “the Brahman forms everything that is living or non-living … the wise man knows that all beings are identical with his self, and his self is the self of all beings.”

.

By vinaire | Comments (0)

The World of Atom (Part VI)

August 23, 2020 – 6:53 AM

Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART VI – THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN ATOMIC PHYSICS

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 26: The Discovery of X-rays (Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen 1845 – 1923)

The discovery of X-rays was made accidentally by Roentgen on November 2, 1895, while he was experimenting with a Crooke’s tube covered by a shield of black cardboard. The source of X-rays was cathode rays falling on the glass surface of the tube. The X -rays exhibit the properties of light waves of very short wavelength. They can easily pass through the paper and wood. Other substances are transparent to it by different degrees. The denser the substance, the less transparent it is. X-rays are not identical with cathode rays because they cannot be deflected by a magnetic field. X-rays ionize air and other gases, which can then discharge electrified bodies.

Chapter 27: The Discovery of Radioactivity (Antoine Henri Becquerel 1852 – 1908)

Becquerel was studying phosphorescence in Uranium salts (1896) when he discovered radiation that penetrated paper opaque to light. Unlike phosphorescence and X-rays, this radiation continued to be emitted without any external excitation. But like X-rays, it discharged electrified bodies and went through bodies opaque to light. The enfeeblement of these radiations in passing through various screens was less than the enfeeblement of X-rays.

Chapter 28: The Discovery of the Electron (J. J. Thomson 1856 – 1940)

J. J. Thomson investigated the nature of the cathode rays that appeared when the gas discharge occurred at low pressure. It was known that the cathode-ray beam carried negative charges, but Thomson demonstrated in 1897 that cathode rays and negative charges are one and the same thing. Since the mass to charge ratio for the cathode rays was about 2000 times lighter than the lightest atom of hydrogen known, he concluded that the negative charges of cathode rays were subatomic particles. These were later named electrons.

Chapter 29: The Discovery of Polonium and Radium (Pierre Curie 1859 – 1906, Marie Sklodovska Curie 1867 – 1934)

After Becquerel’s discovery of radioactivity in 1896, Pierre and Marie Curie, in 1898, started a systematic search of other radioactive elements. They soon discovered Polonium and Radium. It took them till 1902 to isolate enough radium to determine its atomic weight.

Chapter 30: The Discovery of α-and β-rays from Uranium (Ernest Rutherford 1871 – 1937)

Ernest Rutherford start working on understanding the nature of the radioactive emissions, and soon discovered the α-and β-rays from Uranium in 1899.

Chapter 31: The Discovery of γ-rays (Paul Villard 1860 – 1934)

Villard discovered γ-rays in 1900 in the course of investigating the natural radiations from radium. He wanted to see whether or not a penetrating radiation like X-rays might be emitted. He found that a part of the emission from radium was very penetrating, and it was not deflected by a magnetic field. Hence this radiation carried no electric charge. It did have the nature of very penetrating X-rays.

Chapter 32: The Transformation of the Elements (Ernest Rutherford 1871 – 1937, Frederick Soddy 1877 – 1956)

Rutherford and Soddy discovered in 1902 the transformation of the atoms of elements as part of radioactivity. Consequently, all radioactive elements were considered as undergoing spontaneous transformation into new elements; the atom could no longer be viewed as the immutable entity that chemistry had hitherto considered it. Thus, the most sweeping changes in the contemporary outlook on matter were introduced.

Chapter 33: The Quantum Theory of Radiation (Max Planck 1858 – 1947)

In his study of the interaction between matter and radiation in black-body radiation, Planck discovered in 1900 that energy and action are atomic in nature. This radiation of frequency f can be absorbed or emitted only in bundles (or quanta) hf. This led to the quantum of action h. The atomicity of action means that the emission and absorption of radiation by matter is discontinuous. To get this, Planck had to postulate that entropy is zero at zero absolute temperature. This discovery meant that the wave picture of electromagnetic radiation would have to be replaced by a wave-corpuscular picture.

Chapter 34: Mass Changes with Velocity (Walter Kaufmann 1871 – 1947)

In the observed range of speeds e/m varies very strongly; with increasing v the ratio e/m decreases very markedly, from which one may infer the presence of a not inconsiderable fraction of “apparent mass” which increases with speed in such a way as to become infinite at the speed of light.

Chapter 35: The Electron Theory of Matter (Henrik Anton Lorentz 1853 – 1928)

Lorentz created a model of electron in which electric charge was distributed within a thin spherical, material surface embedded in an electromagnetic field. When this electron was accelerated by the interaction of charge with the electromagnetic field, it flattened in the direction of motion. Lorentz gave the moving electron its own coordinate system relative to the fixed coordinate system of earth. The transformation equations came about as Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations were kept the same in both fixed and moving coordinate systems.

Chapter 36: Einstein’s Legacy (Albert Einstein 1879 – 1955)

Einstein provided ground breaking physical reasoning to establish the reality of molecules, electromagnetic radiation and physical space. He proved the existence of molecules directly by relating it to the observable phenomenon of Brownian motion mathematically.

Einstein established beyond any doubt that electromagnetic radiation has particle-like properties. In spite of its wave properties radiation was not a disturbance in some postulated ether. Radiation field could exist in space quite independently of palpable matter. Einstein visualized radiation as made up of unchanging energy-packets (quanta) distributed discontinuously in space. Einstein proved further that energy and mass are equivalent, and mechanics could no longer be maintained as the foundation of physics.

Einstein further established the nature of electromagnetic substance through his special theory of relativity. He determined that no observer (inertial frame) could travel at the speed of light. He postulated that the laws of nature, including the speed of light, should appear the same in all inertial frames moving with uniform speed with respect to each other. This became the basis of Einstein’s relativity. It resulted in the revision of the concepts of space and time.

Einstein also published an analysis indicating the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass is not a mere accident of nature, but the basis of a profound physical principle that leads to a new theory of gravity. Einstein realized that mathematical descriptions of nature were to be taken as laws only if their forms remain unchanged in going from one frame of reference to any other frame by the most general type of coordinate transformation we can imagine. This became his general theory of relativity.

.

MAIN POINTS

  1. Cathode rays are made of the same substance that surrounds the nucleus of an atom.
  2. X-rays are emitted by atoms that are struck by cathode rays.
  3. X-rays are of the same nature as light but have a greater consistency and penetrating power.
  4. Radioactivity is spontaneous emission from heavy atoms without external excitation.
  5. The natural radiations from radioactivity consist of α, β and γ rays.
  6. Radioactivity is accompanied by a restructuring of the nucleus.
  7. Electromagnetic radiation is substance moving in straight line as a wave.
  8. Electromagnetic radiation is absorbed or emitted by atoms proportional to its consistency (Planck). 
  9. The “quantum of action” h is the proportionality constant between quantum and consistency of radiation.
  10. The e/m ratio for electron decreases markedly with increasing velocity.
  11. The electron flattens as it is accelerated according to transformation equations (Lorentz).
  12. Atoms and molecules are real particles with momentum and inertia (Einstein).
  13. Electrons and electromagnetic radiation also has momentum and inertia (Einstein).
  14. Quantum is the amount of electromagnetic radiation absorbed or emitted by an atom (Einstein).
  15. Speed of light is so large that it appears to be constant from material frames of references (Einstein).
  16. The equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass leads to a new theory of gravitation (Einstein).

THEORY
Nuclear matter is surrounded by charge that exists as a vortex in the sea of electromagnetic radiation. All are different form of substance in that they all possess momentum and inertia. The electromagnetic radiation has extremely small momentum and inertia, and it is not reducible to discrete particles. The charge has greater moment and inertia and appears as discrete fluid-like vortices. Nuclear matter has the highest momentum and inertia and appears as solid discrete point particles.

The substance forms a spectrum from space (extremely thin consistency) to matter (very thick consistency).  X-rays appear with excitations in the deep electronic region. γ-rays are spontaneously emitted from the nuclear region. The latter is accompanied by changes in the nuclear structure. A small amount of matter is equivalent to a very large amount of radiation in terms of energy. The acceleration of charge increases its inertia, which appears as “increase in mass.”

Atoms absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in amounts proportional to the consistency of the radiation. Quantum refers to the consistency of radiation and the energy of interaction. The radiation is continuous in space. As the consistency of substance increases, it increasingly curves upon itself. It appears to shrink in extent until it appears like a particle. It loses linear velocity, and increases in duration. This was seen as “shrinking of space” and “dilation of time.”

The intrinsic motion of radiation is balanced by its innate inertia. This appears as a constant speed; for example, the speed of light. The speed of light is so large that it appears to be constant from material frames of references. This leads to the correction factor employed by the special theory of relativity. The equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass leads to the theory of gravitation of the general theory of relativity.

.

By vinaire | Comments (0)

Absolute & Relative Motion (old)

July 12, 2020 – 6:55 AM

Motion is the appearance and disappearance of something in a continuous manner at consecutive locations. When the very substance is appearing and disappearing then the motion is absolute. But, when only some aspect related to that substance is appearing and disappearing then the motion is relative.

.

Absolute Motion

Nuclear substance or black hole that has infinite duration shall stay at a location forever. By definition it will have no motion in an absolute sense. It will be at absolute rest. But as duration becomes finite, the substance will be disappearing and appearing again; and so, there will be motion. The lesser is the duration, the greater will be the motion.

For example, the sun has been enduring for over 4 billion years and it has not disappeared yet. That means it has not changed its location in an absolute sense. In other words, it has not moved. This pretty much applies to all objects composed of atoms. But substances, such as, light that are not made of atoms have hardly any consistency and duration. That means they appear and disappear very fast. In other words, light moves rapidly in an absolute sense.

So, there is a whole scale of absolute motion—from absolute rest of black holes to absolute rapid motion of light. The reference point for absolute motion is the consistency and the duration of the substance itself.

.

Relative Motion

We are familiar with relative motion only among solid objects, whose consistency and duration is very large. In relative motion, the reference point is always a solid material object whose duration is very large. Thus, light is not used as a reference point.

We measure the motion of an object on earth relative to the earth. But the earth also moves relative to the sun, and the sun itself moves relative to the center of our galaxy. An object, therefore, can have different measures of motion relative to different objects.

The earth’s rotation makes the sun appear to move in the sky. The sun never disappears completely, only its coordinates in earth’s reference system change. Thus, the sun appears to move around the earth. But, if we are on the sun watching earth, then the earth will appear to move in the sky at a rate that earth’s coordinates are changing in the sun’s reference system.

Thus, relative motion has no absolute value, as there is no absolute reference system out there.

.

Relationship

The absolute motion of a substance depends on its duration, which, in turn, depends on its consistency. The motion of light is, therefore, constant if its consistency does not change. The consistency of light may be related to its frequency. Therefore, light of a certain frequency will always travel at the same speed anywhere in the empty space of the universe. This is absolute motion.

In general, matter has such a large duration that its absolute motion is close to zero. Therefore, a solid material body shall have practically no motion anywhere in the universe. The relative motion of a material body could be anything on the relative scale, depending on the reference system chosen, but it would not change its absolute motion, which is practically zero.

Therefore, light will always appear to have the same speed from any solid material body. The coordinate system attached to a solid material body shall have no affect on the speed of light. This was so observed in the historic experiment of Michelson-Morley in 1887.

.

By vinaire | Comments (1)

Matter, Space and Time

July 8, 2020 – 6:05 AM

According to the observations presented in the previous chapter, matter is a continuum in space. Any appearance of matter being discrete comes from its energy interactions with our senses and measuring instruments.

How does matter as a continuum affect the concepts of space and time?

.

Matter and Space

Complete void appears to be an abstraction, but there is reality of “empty space”. The difference between void and empty space is that void is the absence of all substance, whereas, empty space is empty of solid matter only. It is not empty of electronic substance and radiation. Space that is filled with solid matter, defines the extents of that matter. We may extend this definition to all space. We may define space as “the extents of the continuum of substance”. According to this definition space cannot exist without the continuum of substance. It would simply become void, an abstraction.

Current physics treats space as an abstract, mathematical entity. This “space” is fundamental, and it cannot be defined via other quantities. But we shall postulate space as follows.

Space is the extent of the continuum of matter.

Space thus varies in its nature depending on the consistency of substance it contains. We can now visualize Einstein’s space expanding, contracting, curving and twisting.

.

Matter and Time

When we measure time, we measure the duration of something. The duration of the universe is infinite because matter can neither be created nor destroyed. Therefore, matter in itself has infinite duration. However, matter has changing forms, and these forms can have varying durations.

The most fundamental attribute of matter is its consistency, which gives it a form. As covered in the previous chapter, matter thins out continually from solid, impenetrable nucleus to electronic substance to radiation, to void. Matter of highest consistency appears in the nucleus of an atom, or in the black hole at the center of the galaxy. This matter is at the upper end of the spectrum of substance. It has the highest duration. At the lower end of the spectrum is radiation at the edge of the void. This radiation shall have near infinite wavelength and the least duration.

Matter shall appear at the beginning of its duration, stay for its duration, and disappear at the end of that duration. When we see this process occurring in space at consecutive locations, we have motion. This means that the solid, impenetrable form of nuclear matter shall stay at a location in space forever, and the flimsiest form of radiation shall be moving most rapidly from one location to the next in space.

Thus, time as duration is directly related to the consistency of matter and inversely related to the inherent motion of matter. We may sum it up as follows:

(1) Matter has inherent motion.

(2) The inherent motion decreases as the consistency of matter increases, and vice versa.

(3) Absolute rest is associated with the infinite duration of matter of infinite consistency.

(4) Infinite velocity is associated with the infinitesimal duration of radiation of infinitesimal consistency.

Thus, time is directly associated with matter. We may say that

Time is the duration of the continuum of matter.

Time thus varies in its nature depending on the consistency of matter or substance. We can now visualize Einstein’s time dilating and shrinking.

.

Space and Time

As defined above space and time are properties of the continuum of matter. Both space and time acquire their primary characteristic from the consistency of matter. Space and time, therefore, are not independent of each other.

(1) The highest consistency of matter appears in the nucleus of an atom, or in the black hole at the center of the galaxy. At this level of the spectrum, space is completely solid and impenetrable. Time at each location is “forever”. There is no motion.

(2) The lowest consistency of matter appears in the radiation at the edge of the void. At this level of spectrum, space is the flimsiest and completely penetrable. Time at each location is completely “flighty”. There is infinite motion.

This fundamental motion is different in nature than the relative motion we observe in the movement of solid objects in space. The solid objects are near infinite in duration in themselves, but the duration of their positions relative to each other is changing.

The fundamental motion and the relative motion occur at two very different levels.

.

By vinaire | Comments (1)

Matter & Void

June 23, 2020 – 2:06 PM

The first thing we observe about the concepts of matter and void is that there is assumed to be a sharp discontinuity at the interface between them. Since objectivity follows the law of continuity, we expect matter not to stop abruptly, but to thin out gradually, until there is complete absence of matter (void). We, therefore, need to examine the interface between matter and void more closely.

.

Matter

We use a more general term “substance” for matter because, matter is substantial to us to the degree it impacts our senses. Basically, matter is a phenomenon that we sense through our five physical senses. Then we use the mental sense to combine the input from those physical senses to arrive at deeper understanding. This has led us to the discovery of the atomic nature of matter.

From solids to gases, matter has a lessening impact. That means matter thins out as it changes from a solid state to a gaseous state. This has the effect of matter reducing in density. The atomic theory explains it in terms of atoms moving farther apart. Therefore, in order to study the transition from matter to void, we need to take a closer look at atoms.

.

Atoms

In ancient times atoms were visualized to be matter particles that were very small, solid, indivisible and permanent. Newton (1642–1727) theorized that such particles have mass, motion and inertia, and they interact with each other through force. Therefore, a particle, such as, atom could be represented by a mathematical point called center of mass.

The modern atomic theory was born at the beginning of 19th century, and its first application was in the subject of Chemistry. Dalton (1766–1844) theorized that atoms of the same element are alike, but atoms of different elements are different; atoms of different elements combine in certain definite ratios. The idea of atoms being hard, solid and impenetrable particles, continued to be held.

However, some scientists disagreed. Boscovich (1711–1787) theorized that atoms cannot be hard, rigid, massive spheres because they cannot change their velocity instantaneously upon collision, as it violated the law of continuity. He visualized atoms as point particles enveloped by force.

Faraday (1791–1867) found that when he tried to explain electrical conduction using atoms as solid particles separated by space, it led to contradictions. The Boscovich model explained not only electrical conduction, but also “action at a distance” without using the postulate of aether. He saw atoms as “centers of force” from which “tubes of force” extended connecting one atom to another. Force was very concentrated at these centers, but it spread out and filled all space between the atoms. Faraday’s view of nature of matter is expressed in detail in this letter: “A speculation touching Electric Conduction and the Nature of Matter”. We shall further explore this view below.

According to current atomic models, every atom is composed of a hard, point-like nucleus surrounded by clouds of electrons, which are 1800 times lighter. More than 99.94% of an atom’s mass is concentrated in the nucleus that occupies only 0.01% of the atomic volume.

.

Electronic Substance

Physics treats electrons as particles. In truth, electrons do not have centers of mass, so they cannot be differentiated from one another as real particles. No boundary separates one electron from another, or from the void. It is just a particle-less, fluid-like continuum that fills the atom. The consideration of electrons as “particles” comes from a mathematical treatment of discrete sub-atomic reactions.

Even physics considers electrons to have a wave-like nature. It talks about “electron clouds” within the atom that fill over 99% of the atomic volume. This writer finds it more appropriate to consider the electron region to be filled with particle-less, fluid-like continuum made up of layers of different consistencies. To be more real, we shall use the term “electronic substance” in place of electrons.

From Faraday’s point of view, the electronic substance is pure force, and the nucleus of the atom is the “center of force”. The apparent solidity of the nucleus comes from the extreme concentration of the electronic substance at the center of the atom. This makes the nucleus appear 1800 times more dense than the region around it. But there is continuity from the nucleus to the surrounding electronic substance. There is no gap.

The above description does not contradict any experimental data. In this model, the “particles” described by the standard model of particle physics are viewed as “energy particles”. These energy particles are energies of sub-atomic reactions. They are not actual particles in space.

.

Beyond the Atom

Atoms are centers from which matter spreads out into space around them. It loses its consistency very fast and appears as fluid-like electronic substance. This electronic substance, like Faraday’s force, extends out and connects to other atoms. Physics does not define hard boundary for atoms. Mathematically, the electron is a wave function that may extend out to any distance.

So, the space beyond the atom is not empty. Besides electronic substance, it is filled with cosmic microwave background, light and other forms of radiation. This radiation is a fast moving, extremely thin, fluid-like substance that has wave-like properties; and it is not a wave in some postulated substance called aether. Faraday anticipated this way before other scientists in his ideas expressed in this letter: “Thoughts on Ray Vibrations.”

Physics ascribes electromagnetic properties to this radiation and considers it to be made up of discrete particle-like quanta. The idea of quantum is based on the discovery that the energy of radiation is proportional to its frequency, as opposed to the energy of a wave that is proportional to the square of its amplitude. This confirms that radiation is a substance and that it is not a disturbance in an aethereal medium. A quantum is an “energy particle” similar to the electron and other particles, i.e., it is the energy of discrete interactions observed, as of light with metals in photoelectric phenomenon. In reality, radiation is a continuum in space.

According to Faraday’s proposal, radiation is also “force”. It is part of the same line of force that starts at an atom somewhere and spreads out into space to finally terminate at some other atom somewhere. In other words, the electronic substance ends up as radiation as it loses its consistency further by spreading out in space.

.

Conclusion

We arrive at the following conclusions:

  • Matter appears hard, solid and permanent because of the concentration of its substance.
  • Matter thins out at first as electronic substance and then further as radiation.
  • Any discrete appearance of matter as material and energy particles is due to discrete interactions among itself and with our senses.
  • Where this thinning out of matter ends and void begins may only be speculated.

We may, thus, highlight the following:

(1) In reality, matter is a continuum of substance in space.

(2) This substance has variable consistency from matter to void.

.

By vinaire | Comments (4)