Category Archives: Science

Mass, Energy and Time

September 15, 2019 – 6:08 PM

Substance has the characteristic of mass that is directly related to its substantiality. In fact, the substantiality may be expressed in terms of the density of mass. The mass density may be plotted on a continuous scale meaning that it is continuous in value. It is not an integer multiple of some ultimate amount that is indivisible.

Mass is the measure of substantiality of substance.

The intrinsic motion of substance is expressed as its energy. The agitation of gas molecules is an example of intrinsic motion. Another example is the Brownian motion. The intrinsic motion appears naturally between two substances of different mass densities. An example is the extremely rapid motion of electrons around the nucleus of an atom. Another example is the speed of light relative to earth. These motions are intrinsic. There are no external force generating such motion. 

Energy is the measure of intrinsic motion of substance.

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Substantiality and Motion

Matter is highly substantial, and it endures at any location for a long time. Its intrinsic motion, therefore, is very small. Light, on the other hand has little substantiality, and it barely endures at any location. Its intrinsic motion, therefore, is very high. This sums up to the following observation.

The higher is the substantiality (mass density) of substance, the lower is its intrinsic motion (energy).

In other words, higher is its intrinsic motion, lower is the substantiality of substance. This means that near infinite speed of light must be accompanied by infinitesimal substantiality. Therefore, light must have insignificant but finite mass density.

Einstein’s assertion that light has no mass may be interpreted as follows:

  1. The mass density of light is insignificant and negligible compared to the mass density of matter, or
  2. Light does not have the property of “center of mass”. 

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Mass and energy

Per the discussion above, intrinsic motion is inverse of mass density. In other words, energy is inversely related to mass density. This seems to contradict Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2, which seems to relate energy directly to mass.

This contradiction, however, resolves when we look at this equation in terms of unit conversion. Using this equation, we can express mass in energy units, and energy in mass units. It shows that infinitesimal amount of mass density is equivalent to a significant amount of energy because of the large multiplier c2.

Therefore, when mass expands into energy, the amount of that energy is significantly large, and when energy condenses into mass, the amount of that mass is insignificantly small.

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Time

The discussion above also provides us with a new understanding of time as the “duration of substance.” The higher is the mass density of substance, the longer is the time for which it endures at any location, and the lower is its intrinsic motion. Therefore,

Time is directly proportional to mass density, and inversely proportional to intrinsic motion.

Time has the intrinsic nature of duration that depends on how dense substance is at any location. The fourth dimension at any location, therefore, is mass density.

Each location has three dimensions of space and a fourth dimension of mass density (duration).

Locations of infinite mass density shall have infinite duration and they shall act as points of absolute rest. Thus, points of infinite density shall act as reference points for surrounding motion. That is why we find black holes at the center of galaxies.

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (0)

Particle, Continuum and Atom (old)

September 15, 2019 – 4:21 PM

Particle and continuum are the subcategories of substance (see Matter, Void and Space). Their extents are defined by space. Both are absent in the void. Current physics has no proper definitions for them.

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Material Particle & Continuum

The idea of particle is a “distinct entity”. Material objects exist as discrete entities in space. A material object  may be broken down into smaller parts, each of which exist as distinct entities. These are particles of matter. The smallest particle of matter is an atom. 

A classical atom is considered to be made up of substance that is distributed uniformly throughout the atom. The configuration of an atom is rigid. The substance of the atom is identified as mass. A rigid arrangement of atoms then constitutes a solid material body. This rigidity produces a “center of mass” such that forces acting on the body may be reduced to a single resultant force acting on that center. Moments due to the forces may also be reduced to a single resultant torque at that center. This center is called the “center of mass”. It allows a rigid material body to be treated as a “point particle”. 

A material particle is distinguished from another material particle in space because of its center of mass. Billiard balls striking each other on a table are material particles. The dust particle floating in a beam of sunlight across the room are also such material particles. Each have a center of mass.

A MATERIAL PARTICLE in space is defined by its center of mass.

If there is no center of mass, then a material particle cannot be distinguished from its surrounding. There exists simply a continuum of substance. Light filling the space is such continuum of substance.

A CONTINUUM of substance has mass density but no center of mass.

An atom of matter may be considered indivisible because it loses its characteristics when divided further. But light is infinitely divisible because it never loses its characteristics when divided.

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The Energy Particle

The “energy particle” is defined by an interaction. It refers to the amount of the substance involved in an interaction. It is not the amount existing in space by itself. A quantum of light is the amount of light involved in an interaction within the detector.  A quantum of light is different for different interactions. This is similar to a chemical agent reacting in different amounts in different chemical reactions. 

An ENERGY PARTICLE is the amount of substance participating in an interaction.

A light quantum is created out of a continuum of light. Such energy particle is always discrete because the interactions can be counted. This is what happens in the photoelectric phenomenon. Discrete interactions do not necessarily imply that light is discrete and indivisible in space. Light is a continuum and infinitely divisible in space though its interactions are discrete and “indivisible”.

A quantum is an energy particle. It has a specific value determined from how it interacts, but that value is part of a continuum.

A QUANTUM is a discrete amount drawn from a continuum by an interaction at the atomic level.

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The Atom 

The atom is a material particle. It has a center of mass. It also has an intrinsic motion as observed indirectly in Brownian motion. The kinetic theory of gases is built on the intrinsic motion of atoms and molecules.

The atom itself consists a nucleus at the center surrounded by an electronic region. The nucleus is only 0.01% of the atom. The rest 99.99% of the atom is the electronic region. The nucleus is extremely dense and almost stationary compared to the electronic region that is 1840 times less dense and moving extremely rapidly. The whole atom is like a flat whirlpool much like a galaxy. It is incorrect to think of atom as being spherical because of the motion inside it. Even the nucleus itself, when magnified, may appear like a flat whirlpool.

The electronic region does not contain center of mass. It is, therefore, a fast-moving continuum in space. There are no orbits of electron particles. There are simply different interactions at different distances from the nucleus. The electronic region seems to decrease in density and increase in motion as it spreads out from the nucleus.

Similarly, the nuclear region appears to increase in density toward the center of the atomic whirlpool. The different nuclear particles are just different interactions within the nucleus.

There is, obviously, a large density gradient between the electronic and nuclear regions. It is possible that this large gradient of density appears as “charge”. More on this later.

The ATOM is a flat whirlpool of a fast-moving continuum of electrons that is thinning in density and increasing in speed as it spreads out from the nucleus.

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The Belief in Physics

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light considered corpuscles of light to be infinitely divisible. In other words, Newton looked at light as a continuum from which any amount could be drawn for energy interaction.

But there seems to be an assumption in physics that energy particles cannot form a continuum in space, that they must have discrete and indivisible existence. This belief goes back to atomism, which considers atoms to be indivisible.

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (6)

Matter, Void and Space (old)

September 14, 2019 – 9:14 PM

NOTE (06/04/24): Today I shall replace the term “gravity” used in this essay by the term “thought.” I shall also replace the expression “density or mass” by the term “consistency.”

In this essay, we define some common concepts from the viewpoint of physics. The most common concept is MATTER.  Matter is something that can be sensed. The opposite of matter is VOID that cannot be sensed. Matter and void, thus, form a duality.

MATTER – VOID

But there is SPACE that is neither matter nor void. Space is not void because we can sense it. Space is not matter because it still exists as a perfect vacuum when all matter is removed. Space, thus, forms a region between matter and void.

MATTER – SPACE – VOID

In other words, space consists of things that can be sensed but which are not matter. We identify such things as light and gravity. The objective observation is:

Matter is that which is substantial enough to be sensed.

Space is absence of matter, but it still consists of light and gravity that can be sensed.

Void is the absence of anything that can be sensed.

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Substance

We use the word SUBSTANCE as a broad category for things that are physically substantial enough to be sensed. Matter, light and gravity fall under this category of substance. Traditionally, matter has been viewed as a substance, but not light and gravity. This has been a source of much confusion.

Newton did view light as substance but it was seriously questioned by the wave theory. Faraday did view force (hence gravity) as substance, but it was overruled by Maxwell. Today we are not sure if light and gravity are particles or wave.

What sets matter apart from light and gravity is its property of center of mass. Newton’s mechanics is based on this property. Light and gravity are also substance but they do not have centers of mass. The objective definitions are:

SUBSTANCE is anything that is substantial enough to be sensed.

MATTER is a substance that has the property of center of mass.

LIGHT and GRAVITY are substances that do not have the property of center of mass.

VOID is that which cannot be sensed.

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Force and Density

A substance is substantial because it can be sensed. That sense of substantiality may be described by the concept of force. And the degree of substantiality may be described by the concept of density or mass. The objective definitions are:

FORCE is the sense of substantiality of substance.

DENSITY or MASS is the degree of substantiality of substance.

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Space

Space consists of matter, light and gravity. In other words, space consists of substance. Descartes had argued that space is “the sense of extension”. This was explained by Einstein in “Relativity and the Problem of Space” as follows:

Descartes argued somewhat on these lines: space is identical with extension, but extension is connected with bodies; thus there is no space without bodies and hence no empty space. 

Matter has space which it occupies. Similarly, light and gravity also have spaces that they occupy. Space is sensed only because of the substance that occupies it. When there is no substance, there is no space. Beyond space is the void that cannot be sensed. The objective definition is:

SPACE is the property of extension of substance (matter, light and gravity). 

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Current Physics

The above definitions differ from those used in current physics as follows.

(1) Current physics confines itself to matter, light (electromagnetic radiation) and gravity but it does not categorize them as substance. Therefore, there is no general category in current physics for things that can be physically sensed.

(2) Current physics considers elementary quantum particles to be the ultimate constituents of matter, light and gravity, but it does not look at them as substance either. Therefore, physics goes deep into abstraction where boundaries are blurred between things that can be sensed and those that are merely imagined.

(3) Current physics does not differentiate between space and void because it does not look at space as the extension of things that can be sensed. It treats space as an abstract continuum that can curve and bend like rigid matter. 

(4) In short, current physics reduces matter to the idea of discrete particles, and void to the idea of a malleable continuum. The duality of matter and void is no longer as distinct as it once used to be. 

This brings up the lack of clear definition in current physics for the words particle and continuum. This is taken up in the next chapter.

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

September 1, 2019 – 4:58 PM

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is part of the spectrum of substance. (see The Spectrum of Substance). The EM spectrum is made up of the following layers of electromagnetic radiation:

  1. Gamma radiation
  2. X-ray radiation
  3. Ultraviolet radiation
  4. Visible radiation
  5. Infrared radiation
  6. Terahertz radiation
  7. Microwave radiation
  8. Radio waves

Each layer is a continuum of substance. It consists of a range of frequencies. All layers may be arranged on a continuous scale of frequencies. The frequency of EM radiation has certain stability. Any effort to change the frequency activates a restoring force similar to the inertia of matter. Thus, EM radiation appears to maintain its frequency throughout the spectrum.

EM radiation resists its frequency from being changed. This is a form of inertia.

The gamma rays are seen to be emitted by the nucleus, and X-rays from inner electrons. This EM spectrum may be seen to be emitted from the electronic region of the atom. Thus the configuration of the atom exists in equilibrium with the EM spectrum.

The EM spectrum exists in equilibrium with the atom.

Maxwell’s electromagnetic cycles may best be compared to Newton’s corpuscles. Each cycle is infinitely divisible like a corpuscle because unit of time is infinitely divisible. The higher is the “frequency” of light, the denser is the concentration of cycles (corpuscles) that make up the radiation. Therefore, the frequency indicates the density of the radiation. According to The Universal Frame of Reference, the speed of light shall decrease with increase in frequency, but this occurs in infinitely small gradients in the electromagnetic spectrum.

EM radiation forms a continuum in space whose density increases (speed decreases) on a very small gradient as frequency increases.

Common to EM spectrum is the concept of photon. The photon is an energy particle (see Particle, Continuum and Atom). This means that photon is the amount of radiation required in its interaction with the electronic region. This amount is proportional to the frequency (density) of radiation.

A photon is an energy particle of radiation, meaning it is the amount of radiation required in its interaction with the electronic region

Per the relationships, E = hf, and E = mc2, each cycle has energy equal to the Planck’s constant (h), and density equal to the constant (h/c2). As we move up the spectrum, the frequency increases and both wavelength and period shrink together. The radiation (field) becomes increasingly denser and more focused. This is perceived as quantization (condensation of energy into mass) at higher frequencies.

EM radiation becomes denser and more penetrating as frequency increases.

The constants described above ensure the continuity of different regions of the field that are at different frequencies. Therefore, these regions are bounded by smooth gradients of frequency. These gradients manifest as tension (charge) or force. These forces then become part of the field. We recognize these forces as gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc. These forces differ in their nature depending on the sharpness of the gradient as well as on their relative position in the spectrum.

The gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear forces exists in the continuum (field) because of frequency or density gradients.

As forces become stronger with frequency, inertia also increases to balance them. If forces are represented by frequency gradient (increased oscillations relative to itself) then inertia is represented by quantization (increased condensation). Basic inertia appears as permeability and permittivity. It balances the conversion between electric (kinetic and linear) and magnetic (potential and rotational) aspects of a cycle. This shows up in the constant rate of propagation of the electromagnetic disturbance within the field.

The forces within the field are balanced by quantization (inertia).

With increasing frequency gradient the increased quantization seems to develop into a dense structure of mass. This structure appears to be made up of high frequency of infinitesimal cycles. The quantization into mass starts out like “eddies in flow”. This shows the primary characteristic of mass to be rotational. We may identify these “eddies” as the multitudes of quantum particles.

Quantum particles arise out of the condensation of EM radiation.

The rotational nature of mass tends to pin it down and reduce its linear motion. This also increases inertia (density). As the density of quantum particles increases their intrinsic motion decreases (see The Universal Frame of Reference).

Rotation is the characteristics that accompanies increasing condensation into mass, and inertia.

The application of external force invokes inertia, and inertia seems to add to the density of the substance, thus decreasing its intrinsic linear motion. This may describe the conservation of force of Faraday. This appears to contradict Newton’s laws of motion, which describe force in terms of acceleration of an object. This contradiction is resolved when we notice that the “acceleration” in terms of distance cannot be observed when there is no other object around. A continually “accelerated” object simply feels as if it has mass added to it.

External force converts into internal mass or density.

This brings up the difference in the perception of absolute motion from relative motion. This topic is taken up in the next chapter.

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The Wave-Particle Duality

September 1, 2019 – 7:32 AM

According to Wikipedia:

Wave–particle duality is the concept in quantum mechanics that every particle or quantum entity may be described as either a particle or a wave. It expresses the inability of the classical concepts “particle” or “wave” to fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects.

A quantum entity is an “energy particle”. This means it is simply the energy involved in an interaction at the atomic level. Examples are photon and electron. Quantum physics then assumes that photon and electron are indivisible particles (see Feynman on Quantum Behavior).

Light cannot be a wave because it is not a disturbance in stationary medium, such as, aether. Nor can it be a particle because it cannot be distinguished in space by a center of mass. As described earlier,

Light is a continuum in space that has a certain density represented by its “frequency”.

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Double-slit Experiment

According to Wikipedia:

In modern physics, the double-slit experiment is a demonstration that light and matter can display characteristics of both classically defined waves and particles…

In a double-slit experiment with water waves an interference pattern is observed.

A similar pattern is observed when this experiment is repeated with light instead of water waves. The feature, which is common to both of these instances, is the infinite divisibility of the “flow” arriving at the two slits. In case of the water wave, the disturbance on the surface of water is infinitely divisible being continuous. In the case of light, light itself is an infinitely divisible continuum.

The infinite divisibility of the flow arriving at the double-slit produces the interference phenomenon.

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light considered corpuscles to be infinitely divisible. Therefore, it should never have been dropped in favor of a wave-theory of light that postulated unobserved aether.

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Assumption in Physics

Physics assumes that light and electron flow arriving at the double-slits are made up of indivisible particles that go through one slit or the other (see Feynman on Quantum Behavior). Quantum mechanics justifies it through the idea of probability but there are no indivisible particles in the first place. Photons and electrons are “energy particles” arising from interactions. They are not indivisible “lumps” in space. The idea of particles is generated as light or electron interacts with the detector in definite amounts to generate clicks.

The wave-particle confusion exists in physics because “energy particles” are thought of as indivisible particles in space.

This is explained in Particle, Continuum and Atom.

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Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics came about because of the discreteness of energy interactions at the subatomic level.

A material particle also implies discreteness of energy interactions, but, in addition, it implies discreteness of mass in space because of center of mass property. This similarity of energy and mass discreteness does not carry forward from material to subatomic area.

A quantum particle does not imply indivisibility in space.

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