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In contrast to the Universal Frame of Reference there are local frames of reference. A local frame of reference is like a viewpoint attached to a body within the universe as compared to the viewpoint of the whole universe.

The local frames of reference may be outlined as:

• Inertial frame of reference
• Inertial frame of reference (Newtonian)
• Inertial frame of reference (Relativistic)
• Non-inertial frame of reference

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Inertial Frame of Reference

An inertial frame of reference is defined as one in which all laws of physics take on their simplest form. In this frame of reference, a body does not accelerate unless force is applied to it. In the absence of force, the body either stays at rest or moves at a constant speed in a straight line. Conceptually, the physics of a system in an inertial frame have no causes external to the system.

The inertial frame of reference describes time and space as homogeneous, isotropic, and independent of each other. In other words, it assumes space to be filled with matter that is homogeneous and isotropic throughout. (see Matter, Void and Space). It does not consider any variations in its density. The inertial frame of reference applies to the material domain only from the perspective of MATERIAL-VOID duality. It is not universal because it does not include the motion associated with electromagnetic radiation and gravitational force.

Conceptually, a body will move freely at a constant speed relative to another body only when there is a density differential (see The Universal Frame of Reference). But such differential is so small in the material domain that it is ignored. Therefore, all inertial frames are in a state of constant, rectilinear motion with respect to one another irrespective of density. Measurements in one inertial frame can be converted to measurements in another by a simple transformation (the Galilean transformation in Newtonian physics and the Lorentz transformation in special relativity).

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Inertial Frame of Reference (Newtonian)

Newton viewed the first law as valid in any reference frame that is in uniform motion relative to the fixed stars; that is, neither rotating nor accelerating relative to the stars.

Hence, with respect to an inertial frame, an object or body accelerates only when a physical force is applied, and (following Newton’s first law of motion), in the absence of a net force, a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will continue to move uniformly—that is, in a straight line and at constant speed. Newtonian inertial frames transform among each other according to the Galilean transformation.

The Newtonian frame of reference was the original inertial frame of reference that used Earth as its reference point for the motion of material objects on Earth; and Sun as its reference point for the motion of planets in the solar system. It was local because the basis of reference were local bodies.

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Inertial Frame of Reference (Relativistic)

The principle of special relativity generalizes the notion of inertial frame to include all physical laws, not simply Newton’s first law. It, like Newtonian mechanics, postulates the equivalence of all inertial reference frames. However, because special relativity postulates that the speed of light in free space is invariant, the transformation between inertial frames is the Lorentz transformation, not the Galilean transformation which is used in Newtonian mechanics.

The special theory of relativity measures the material velocities from the basis of the velocity of light. The large density differential between matter and light makes the material velocities closer to being absolute as in the universal frame of reference. This gives more accurate results as in the calculation of the precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit.

The invariance of the speed of light leads to counter-intuitive phenomena, such as time dilation and length contraction, and the relativity of simultaneity. But this is similar to the shrinking of period and wavelength as frequency increases in the electromagnetic spectrum. This indicates increasing density. This effect continues in the material domain. When external force is applied to matter its density increases by an infinitesimal amount (see The Electromagnetic Spectrum).

The Lorentz transformation reduces to the Galilean transformation as the speed of light approaches infinity. But those Galilean transformation require velocities to be measured relative to the stars as in the Universal Frame of Reference. Error comes about when velocities are measured relative to local bodies.

The Relativistic frame of reference uses a universal basis, but it still limits itself to the material domain. It is local in that sense.

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Non-Inertial Frame of Reference

In contrast to the inertial frame, a non-inertial frame of reference is one in which fictitious forces must be invoked to explain observations. In other words, when there are curved paths, or rotation, in the inertial reference frame and no forces are visible, then fictitious forces of inertia are assumed.

These fictitious forces come about because of the frame of reference itself is accelerating. This makes the frame of reference non-inertial. For example, Coriolis effect occurs due to Earth’s rotation. This is accounted for by a fictitious force. Another example of such a fictitious force is the centrifugal force associated with rotating reference frames (see video). All of these forces including gravity disappear in a truly inertial reference frame, which is one of free-fall.

Both inertial and non-inertial frames are local because they are limited to the material domain. The Newtonian version uses a body within the universe from which to observe the motion of other bodies. The Relativistic version, however, uses a near universal basis that allows more accuracy but for the material domain only (see The Universal Frame of Reference).

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A frame of reference means a point of view. In physics, it forms the basis of motion. The frame itself is assumed to be at rest. Relative to the frame a body can be at rest, move at a constant velocity, or have acceleration. This video provides an excellent demonstration of frame of reference.

Since we live on Earth, we use Earth as our frame of reference. This local frame is adequate for all motion observed on the surface of Earth. It, however, makes the motion of planets very complex. When we use Sun as our frame of reference, the motion of the planets becomes simple and consistent. We can now see that the Earth itself is moving as a planet around the sun. When we use the center of galaxy as our frame of reference, we find that the Sun is also moving along with the solar system.

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Local and universal

When motion is viewed through another motion, such as, viewing the moving planets from a moving earth, our frame of reference is local. But when we view motion as an intrinsic property existing universally like the property of mass, our frame of reference is universal.

From Earth to Sun to the galaxy, the frame of reference is becoming broader but it is still local. The broader is the frame of reference, the more consistent is the relationship among observed motion. From this point of view, the broadest frame of reference shall provide complete consistency among all motion. But the broadest frame of reference is not from some center within the universe.

The universal frame of reference is viewing motion as an intrinsic property existing universally.

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Universal Frame and Density

In Newton’s time the fixed stars were invoked as a reference frame, which was assumed to be at absolute rest. This comes closest to visualizing in a universal frame of reference.

The universe provides the broadest frame of reference to all things within it. Beyond the universe there is simply void. Within this universe matter has the highest density and light has none. (see Matter, Void and Space).

Matter itself has a gradient of density. For example, the core of the nucleus of an atom may have the highest density. The same could be reasoned for the core of a neutron star, or a black hole. At the other end of the spectrum, light itself may have a gradient of density even when its negligible. The density of light is related to its frequency. This density goes to zero as frequency goes to zero. Light of zero frequency is the void. So, we may relate zero density with the void. So there is a scale of density from void to matter. Substance is defined by the presence of density.

In the universal frame of reference, substance is defined by a scale of density from zero of void to infinity of black hole.

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Universal Frame and Motion

Infinite density appears to be related to absolute rest as in the case of Newton’s fixed stars. Matter has a gradient of density at the upper end of the scale, where we have the slowest motion. Light has a gradient of density at the lower end of the scale, where we have the fastest motion. This shows that there is an inverse relationship between density and motion. This is visualized in the following sketch.

The higher is the density, the lower is the intrinsic motion.

Light has very high speed, but it is not infinite. This means that light must have density even if infinitesimal. Einstein’s assertion that light has no mass may be interpreted as follows:

1. The density of light is insignificant and negligible compared to the density of matter, or
2. Light does not have the property of “center of mass”. 

Thus, infinite speed shall relate to void that has zero density, and absolute rest may relate to black hole, if it has infinite density.

In the universal frame of reference, there is an inverse scale of motion (speed) from infinity of void to zero of black hole

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Time

Matter has very high density, and it endures at any location for a long time. That is why its intrinsic motion is very low. The inverse is true for light that has negligible density, no endurance and high intrinsic motion. This provides us with a new understanding of time as “duration of substance.”

Time is the duration of substance. It is directly proportional to density, and inversely proportional to intrinsic motion.

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The Dimensions

We may sum up the basic concepts of physics as follows:

1. The starting concept is SUBSTANCE with the dimension of DENSITY.
2. SPACE is defined by the extents of substance
3. TIME is defined by the duration of substance

The Universal Frame of reference is based on the concept of substance and the dimensions of density, space and time as defined above. Density, time (duration) and motion are interchangeable as dimensions.

Each location has three dimensions of space and a fourth dimension of density, time (duration) or intrinsic motion.

Locations of infinite density shall have infinite duration and they shall act as points of absolute rest. They shall act as reference points for surrounding motion. That is why we find black holes at the center of galaxies; and heavy nucleus at the center of atom.

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Particle and continuum are the subcategories of substance (see Matter, Void and Space). Their extents are defined by space. Both are absent in the void. Current physics has no proper definitions for them.

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Material Particle & Continuum

The idea of particle is a “distinct entity”. Material objects exist as discrete entities in space. A material object  may be broken down into smaller parts, each of which exist as distinct entities. These are particles of matter. The smallest particle of matter is an atom. 

A classical atom is considered to be made up of substance that is distributed uniformly throughout the atom. The configuration of an atom is rigid. The substance of the atom is identified as mass. A rigid arrangement of atoms then constitutes a solid material body. This rigidity produces a “center of mass” such that forces acting on the body may be reduced to a single resultant force acting on that center. Moments due to the forces may also be reduced to a single resultant torque at that center. This center is called the “center of mass”. It allows a rigid material body to be treated as a “point particle”. 

A material particle is distinguished from another material particle in space because of its center of mass. Billiard balls striking each other on a table are material particles. The dust particle floating in a beam of sunlight across the room are also such material particles. Each have a center of mass.

A MATERIAL PARTICLE in space is defined by its center of mass.

If there is no center of mass, then a material particle cannot be distinguished from its surrounding. There exists simply a continuum of substance. Light filling the space is such continuum of substance.

A CONTINUUM of substance has mass density but no center of mass.

An atom of matter may be considered indivisible because it loses its characteristics when divided further. But light is infinitely divisible because it never loses its characteristics when divided.

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The Energy Particle

The “energy particle” is defined by an interaction. It refers to the amount of the substance involved in an interaction. It is not the amount existing in space by itself. A quantum of light is the amount of light involved in an interaction within the detector.  A quantum of light is different for different interactions. This is similar to a chemical agent reacting in different amounts in different chemical reactions. 

An ENERGY PARTICLE is the amount of substance participating in an interaction.

A light quantum is created out of a continuum of light. Such energy particle is always discrete because the interactions can be counted. This is what happens in the photoelectric phenomenon. Discrete interactions do not necessarily imply that light is discrete and indivisible in space. Light is a continuum and infinitely divisible in space though its interactions are discrete and “indivisible”.

A quantum is an energy particle. It has a specific value determined from how it interacts, but that value is part of a continuum.

A QUANTUM is a discrete amount drawn from a continuum by an interaction at the atomic level.

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The Atom 

The atom is a material particle. It has a center of mass. It also has an intrinsic motion as observed indirectly in Brownian motion. The kinetic theory of gases is built on the intrinsic motion of atoms and molecules.

The atom itself consists a nucleus at the center surrounded by an electronic region. The nucleus is only 0.01% of the atom. The rest 99.99% of the atom is the electronic region. The nucleus is extremely dense and almost stationary compared to the electronic region that is 1840 times less dense and moving extremely rapidly. The whole atom is like a flat whirlpool much like a galaxy. It is incorrect to think of atom as being spherical because of the motion inside it. Even the nucleus itself, when magnified, may appear like a flat whirlpool.

The electronic region does not contain center of mass. It is, therefore, a fast-moving continuum in space. There are no orbits of electron particles. There are simply different interactions at different distances from the nucleus. The electronic region seems to decrease in density and increase in motion as it spreads out from the nucleus.

Similarly, the nuclear region appears to increase in density toward the center of the atomic whirlpool. The different nuclear particles are just different interactions within the nucleus.

There is, obviously, a large density gradient between the electronic and nuclear regions. It is possible that this large gradient of density appears as “charge”. More on this later.

The ATOM is a flat whirlpool of a fast-moving continuum of electrons that is thinning in density and increasing in speed as it spreads out from the nucleus.

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The Belief in Physics

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light considered corpuscles of light to be infinitely divisible. In other words, Newton looked at light as a continuum from which any amount could be drawn for energy interaction.

But there seems to be an assumption in physics that energy particles cannot form a continuum in space, that they must have discrete and indivisible existence. This belief goes back to atomism, which considers atoms to be indivisible.

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