The Spectrum of Substance (old-2)

Please see The Spectrum of Substance

When we consider the scale of density of substance, we usually consider matter on a macroscopic scale. Matter is an aggregate of atoms separated by space. The space between atoms is filled by the continuum of electrons, the electromagnetic spectrum and gravitational force. The density of matter depends on the concentration of atoms in space. Beyond space we have the void. Earlier, we considered this spectrum of substance as

MATTER – SPACE – VOID

Matter is made up of particles of substance, but space is a continuum of substance. There are layers of particle and continua of different concentrations and densities. These layers may be listed broadly as follows.

MATERIAL PARTICLES
NUCLEAR “PARTICLES”
ELECTRONS
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
VOID

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Material Particles

We are very familiar with material particles. They have the property of center of mass, which allows them to be treated as point particles in classical mechanics. They collide with each other and have discrete energy of impact. Therefore, they are energy particles as well.

The material particles are a collection of smaller particles called atoms. Atoms are separated by space, which is filled with the continua of electrons, electromagnetic radiation and gravitational force. The concentration of atoms within a volume determines material density.

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Nuclear “particles”

At close quarters the nuclear “particles” (neutrons and protons) appear to form a continuum of very high density. They may still be treated as point particles. The energy of their nuclear interactions also appears to be discrete. Therefore, they are “particles” in terms of energy also.

In space, however, they form a highly dense continuum that exists within the continuum of electrons. We assume neutrons and protons to be spherical, and the mass to be distributed evenly throughout that spherical volume. The density of this nuclear region is higher than the average density of matter because there is no space mixed within it to dilute it.

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Electrons and Charge

The electronic region surrounds the nuclear region, and it is in equilibrium with it. The largest drop in mass density occurs from the nuclear to electronic region. This is also the interface where the phenomenon of charge appears as a significant force.

The electrons are 1840 times less dense than the nucleus. They do not have a center of mass. Therefore, they form a continuum in space. But there is a gradient of density within the electronic region along the radius of the atom. This gradient appears as discrete “energy levels” within the atom, because of the interactions occurring with photons.

It is possible that the phenomenon of charge is related directly to the sharp gradient in mass density between the electronic and nuclear regions. It seems that force is produced by this density gradient, which is different from electron-photon interactions forming energy levels.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the continuum surrounding the continuum of electrons. It is in equilibrium with the electronic region as observed in the black body radiation. The density continues to decrease on a gradient from the electronic region through the electromagnetic spectrum. Here density seems to be represented by frequency.

The quantum “particles” appear throughout the nuclear region down to the bottom of electromagnetic spectrum. These are the unique energies of interactions scattered throughout this part of substance spectrum. Each quantum is part of a continuum of certain density. There is a continuous gradient of mass density from the nuclear region down to the bottom of electromagnetic spectrum.

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Gravitational Force

From the bottom of electromagnetic spectrum down to the void is the region of extremely low frequency and extremely large wavelengths. In this region the consistency of substance is so rarefied that it appears as pure force. This is the region of gravitational force, or gravity.

Gravity is the lowest common denominator of the spectrum of substance. This explains why gravity acts on everything in this universe. This also explains why no “gravitons” have been detected because we may be dealing with just one graviton of the size of the universe.

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Void

Below gravitational force on the spectrum is the void of zero consistency. Void is the absence of substance. There is nothing to be sensed. Void is no-awareness.

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September 23, 2019 – 9:43 AM Categories: Physics Book | Post a comment

The Universal Frame of Reference

A frame of reference means a point of view. In physics, it forms the basis of motion. The frame itself is assumed to be at rest. Relative to the frame a body can be at rest, move at a constant velocity, or have acceleration. This video provides an excellent demonstration of frame of reference.

Since we live on Earth, we use Earth as our frame of reference. This local frame is adequate for all motion observed on the surface of Earth. It, however, makes the motion of planets very complex. When we use Sun as our frame of reference, the motion of the planets becomes simple and consistent. We can now see that the Earth itself is moving as a planet around the sun. When we use the center of galaxy as our frame of reference, we find that the Sun is also moving along with the solar system.

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Local and universal

When motion is viewed through another motion, such as, viewing the moving planets from a moving earth, our frame of reference is local. But when we view motion as an intrinsic property existing universally like the property of mass, our frame of reference is universal.

From Earth to Sun to the galaxy, the frame of reference is becoming broader but it is still local. The broader is the frame of reference, the more consistent is the relationship among observed motion. From this point of view, the broadest frame of reference shall provide complete consistency among all motion. But the broadest frame of reference is not from some center within the universe.

The universal frame of reference is viewing motion as an intrinsic property existing universally.

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Universal Frame and Density

In Newton’s time the fixed stars were invoked as a reference frame, which was assumed to be at absolute rest. This comes closest to visualizing in a universal frame of reference.

The universe provides the broadest frame of reference to all things within it. Beyond the universe there is simply void. Within this universe matter has the highest density and light has none. (see Matter, Void and Space).

Matter itself has a gradient of density. For example, the core of the nucleus of an atom may have the highest density. The same could be reasoned for the core of a neutron star, or a black hole. At the other end of the spectrum, light itself may have a gradient of density even when its negligible. The density of light is related to its frequency. This density goes to zero as frequency goes to zero. Light of zero frequency is the void. So, we may relate zero density with the void. So there is a scale of density from void to matter. Substance is defined by the presence of density.

In the universal frame of reference, substance is defined by a scale of density from zero of void to infinity of black hole.

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Universal Frame and Motion

Infinite density appears to be related to absolute rest as in the case of Newton’s fixed stars. Matter has a gradient of density at the upper end of the scale, where we have the slowest motion. Light has a gradient of density at the lower end of the scale, where we have the fastest motion. This shows that there is an inverse relationship between density and motion. This is visualized in the following sketch.

The higher is the density, the lower is the intrinsic motion.

Light has very high speed, but it is not infinite. This means that light must have density even if infinitesimal. Einstein’s assertion that light has no mass may be interpreted as follows:

  1. The density of light is insignificant and negligible compared to the density of matter, or
  2. Light does not have the property of “center of mass”. 

Thus, infinite speed shall relate to void that has zero density, and absolute rest may relate to black hole, if it has infinite density.

In the universal frame of reference, there is an inverse scale of motion (speed) from infinity of void to zero of black hole

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Time

Matter has very high density, and it endures at any location for a long time. That is why its intrinsic motion is very low. The inverse is true for light that has negligible density, no endurance and high intrinsic motion. This provides us with a new understanding of time as “duration of substance.”

Time is the duration of substance. It is directly proportional to density, and inversely proportional to intrinsic motion.

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The Dimensions

We may sum up the basic concepts of physics as follows:

  1. The starting concept is SUBSTANCE with the dimension of DENSITY.
  2. SPACE is defined by the extents of substance
  3. TIME is defined by the duration of substance

The Universal Frame of reference is based on the concept of substance and the dimensions of density, space and time as defined above. Density, time (duration) and motion are interchangeable as dimensions.

Each location has three dimensions of space and a fourth dimension of density, time (duration) or intrinsic motion.

Locations of infinite density shall have infinite duration and they shall act as points of absolute rest. They shall act as reference points for surrounding motion. That is why we find black holes at the center of galaxies; and heavy nucleus at the center of atom.

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September 22, 2019 – 10:57 AM Categories: Physics Book | Comments (1)

Mass, Energy and Time

Substance has the characteristic of mass that is directly related to its substantiality. In fact, the substantiality may be expressed in terms of the density of mass. The mass density may be plotted on a continuous scale meaning that it is continuous in value. It is not an integer multiple of some ultimate amount that is indivisible.

Mass is the measure of substantiality of substance.

The intrinsic motion of substance is expressed as its energy. The agitation of gas molecules is an example of intrinsic motion. Another example is the Brownian motion. The intrinsic motion appears naturally between two substances of different mass densities. An example is the extremely rapid motion of electrons around the nucleus of an atom. Another example is the speed of light relative to earth. These motions are intrinsic. There are no external force generating such motion. 

Energy is the measure of intrinsic motion of substance.

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Substantiality and Motion

Matter is highly substantial, and it endures at any location for a long time. Its intrinsic motion, therefore, is very small. Light, on the other hand has little substantiality, and it barely endures at any location. Its intrinsic motion, therefore, is very high. This sums up to the following observation.

The higher is the substantiality (mass density) of substance, the lower is its intrinsic motion (energy).

In other words, higher is its intrinsic motion, lower is the substantiality of substance. This means that near infinite speed of light must be accompanied by infinitesimal substantiality. Therefore, light must have insignificant but finite mass density.

Einstein’s assertion that light has no mass may be interpreted as follows:

  1. The mass density of light is insignificant and negligible compared to the mass density of matter, or
  2. Light does not have the property of “center of mass”. 

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Mass and energy

Per the discussion above, intrinsic motion is inverse of mass density. In other words, energy is inversely related to mass density. This seems to contradict Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2, which seems to relate energy directly to mass.

This contradiction, however, resolves when we look at this equation in terms of unit conversion. Using this equation, we can express mass in energy units, and energy in mass units. It shows that infinitesimal amount of mass density is equivalent to a significant amount of energy because of the large multiplier c2.

Therefore, when mass expands into energy, the amount of that energy is significantly large, and when energy condenses into mass, the amount of that mass is insignificantly small.

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Time

The discussion above also provides us with a new understanding of time as the “duration of substance.” The higher is the mass density of substance, the longer is the time for which it endures at any location, and the lower is its intrinsic motion. Therefore,

Time is directly proportional to mass density, and inversely proportional to intrinsic motion.

Time has the intrinsic nature of duration that depends on how dense substance is at any location. The fourth dimension at any location, therefore, is mass density.

Each location has three dimensions of space and a fourth dimension of mass density (duration).

Locations of infinite mass density shall have infinite duration and they shall act as points of absolute rest. Thus, points of infinite density shall act as reference points for surrounding motion. That is why we find black holes at the center of galaxies.

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September 15, 2019 – 6:08 PM Categories: Physics Book | Post a comment

Particle, Continuum and Atom (old)

Particle and continuum are the subcategories of substance (see Matter, Void and Space). Their extents are defined by space. Both are absent in the void. Current physics has no proper definitions for them.

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Material Particle & Continuum

The idea of particle is a “distinct entity”. Material objects exist as discrete entities in space. A material object  may be broken down into smaller parts, each of which exist as distinct entities. These are particles of matter. The smallest particle of matter is an atom. 

A classical atom is considered to be made up of substance that is distributed uniformly throughout the atom. The configuration of an atom is rigid. The substance of the atom is identified as mass. A rigid arrangement of atoms then constitutes a solid material body. This rigidity produces a “center of mass” such that forces acting on the body may be reduced to a single resultant force acting on that center. Moments due to the forces may also be reduced to a single resultant torque at that center. This center is called the “center of mass”. It allows a rigid material body to be treated as a “point particle”. 

A material particle is distinguished from another material particle in space because of its center of mass. Billiard balls striking each other on a table are material particles. The dust particle floating in a beam of sunlight across the room are also such material particles. Each have a center of mass.

A MATERIAL PARTICLE in space is defined by its center of mass.

If there is no center of mass, then a material particle cannot be distinguished from its surrounding. There exists simply a continuum of substance. Light filling the space is such continuum of substance.

A CONTINUUM of substance has mass density but no center of mass.

An atom of matter may be considered indivisible because it loses its characteristics when divided further. But light is infinitely divisible because it never loses its characteristics when divided.

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The Energy Particle

The “energy particle” is defined by an interaction. It refers to the amount of the substance involved in an interaction. It is not the amount existing in space by itself. A quantum of light is the amount of light involved in an interaction within the detector.  A quantum of light is different for different interactions. This is similar to a chemical agent reacting in different amounts in different chemical reactions. 

An ENERGY PARTICLE is the amount of substance participating in an interaction.

A light quantum is created out of a continuum of light. Such energy particle is always discrete because the interactions can be counted. This is what happens in the photoelectric phenomenon. Discrete interactions do not necessarily imply that light is discrete and indivisible in space. Light is a continuum and infinitely divisible in space though its interactions are discrete and “indivisible”.

A quantum is an energy particle. It has a specific value determined from how it interacts, but that value is part of a continuum.

A QUANTUM is a discrete amount drawn from a continuum by an interaction at the atomic level.

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The Atom 

The atom is a material particle. It has a center of mass. It also has an intrinsic motion as observed indirectly in Brownian motion. The kinetic theory of gases is built on the intrinsic motion of atoms and molecules.

The atom itself consists a nucleus at the center surrounded by an electronic region. The nucleus is only 0.01% of the atom. The rest 99.99% of the atom is the electronic region. The nucleus is extremely dense and almost stationary compared to the electronic region that is 1840 times less dense and moving extremely rapidly. The whole atom is like a flat whirlpool much like a galaxy. It is incorrect to think of atom as being spherical because of the motion inside it. Even the nucleus itself, when magnified, may appear like a flat whirlpool.

The electronic region does not contain center of mass. It is, therefore, a fast-moving continuum in space. There are no orbits of electron particles. There are simply different interactions at different distances from the nucleus. The electronic region seems to decrease in density and increase in motion as it spreads out from the nucleus.

Similarly, the nuclear region appears to increase in density toward the center of the atomic whirlpool. The different nuclear particles are just different interactions within the nucleus.

There is, obviously, a large density gradient between the electronic and nuclear regions. It is possible that this large gradient of density appears as “charge”. More on this later.

The ATOM is a flat whirlpool of a fast-moving continuum of electrons that is thinning in density and increasing in speed as it spreads out from the nucleus.

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The Belief in Physics

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light considered corpuscles of light to be infinitely divisible. In other words, Newton looked at light as a continuum from which any amount could be drawn for energy interaction.

But there seems to be an assumption in physics that energy particles cannot form a continuum in space, that they must have discrete and indivisible existence. This belief goes back to atomism, which considers atoms to be indivisible.

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September 15, 2019 – 4:21 PM Categories: Physics Book | Comments (6)

Matter, Void and Space (old)

NOTE (06/04/24): Today I shall replace the term “gravity” used in this essay by the term “thought.” I shall also replace the expression “density or mass” by the term “consistency.”

In this essay, we define some common concepts from the viewpoint of physics. The most common concept is MATTER.  Matter is something that can be sensed. The opposite of matter is VOID that cannot be sensed. Matter and void, thus, form a duality.

MATTER – VOID

But there is SPACE that is neither matter nor void. Space is not void because we can sense it. Space is not matter because it still exists as a perfect vacuum when all matter is removed. Space, thus, forms a region between matter and void.

MATTER – SPACE – VOID

In other words, space consists of things that can be sensed but which are not matter. We identify such things as light and gravity. The objective observation is:

Matter is that which is substantial enough to be sensed.

Space is absence of matter, but it still consists of light and gravity that can be sensed.

Void is the absence of anything that can be sensed.

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Substance

We use the word SUBSTANCE as a broad category for things that are physically substantial enough to be sensed. Matter, light and gravity fall under this category of substance. Traditionally, matter has been viewed as a substance, but not light and gravity. This has been a source of much confusion.

Newton did view light as substance but it was seriously questioned by the wave theory. Faraday did view force (hence gravity) as substance, but it was overruled by Maxwell. Today we are not sure if light and gravity are particles or wave.

What sets matter apart from light and gravity is its property of center of mass. Newton’s mechanics is based on this property. Light and gravity are also substance but they do not have centers of mass. The objective definitions are:

SUBSTANCE is anything that is substantial enough to be sensed.

MATTER is a substance that has the property of center of mass.

LIGHT and GRAVITY are substances that do not have the property of center of mass.

VOID is that which cannot be sensed.

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Force and Density

A substance is substantial because it can be sensed. That sense of substantiality may be described by the concept of force. And the degree of substantiality may be described by the concept of density or mass. The objective definitions are:

FORCE is the sense of substantiality of substance.

DENSITY or MASS is the degree of substantiality of substance.

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Space

Space consists of matter, light and gravity. In other words, space consists of substance. Descartes had argued that space is “the sense of extension”. This was explained by Einstein in “Relativity and the Problem of Space” as follows:

Descartes argued somewhat on these lines: space is identical with extension, but extension is connected with bodies; thus there is no space without bodies and hence no empty space. 

Matter has space which it occupies. Similarly, light and gravity also have spaces that they occupy. Space is sensed only because of the substance that occupies it. When there is no substance, there is no space. Beyond space is the void that cannot be sensed. The objective definition is:

SPACE is the property of extension of substance (matter, light and gravity). 

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Current Physics

The above definitions differ from those used in current physics as follows.

(1) Current physics confines itself to matter, light (electromagnetic radiation) and gravity but it does not categorize them as substance. Therefore, there is no general category in current physics for things that can be physically sensed.

(2) Current physics considers elementary quantum particles to be the ultimate constituents of matter, light and gravity, but it does not look at them as substance either. Therefore, physics goes deep into abstraction where boundaries are blurred between things that can be sensed and those that are merely imagined.

(3) Current physics does not differentiate between space and void because it does not look at space as the extension of things that can be sensed. It treats space as an abstract continuum that can curve and bend like rigid matter. 

(4) In short, current physics reduces matter to the idea of discrete particles, and void to the idea of a malleable continuum. The duality of matter and void is no longer as distinct as it once used to be. 

This brings up the lack of clear definition in current physics for the words particle and continuum. This is taken up in the next chapter.

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September 14, 2019 – 9:14 PM Categories: Physics Book | Comments (5)