Category Archives: Science

The World of Atom (Part III)

December 26, 2019 – 10:34 PM

Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART III – THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 14: Atoms in Motion (John Herapath 1790 – 1868)

According to Herapath the relationship among temperature, pressure, and density applied to the supposed aethereal medium also. He basically came up with the kinetic theory of gases on his own. His particles moved by an intrinsic motion with perfect freedom. Herapath substituted Newton’s repulsive forces among the particles of gases by their intrinsic motion. He theorized that gas heats up on sudden compression and cools down on sudden expansion because of change in velocity of the particles.

Chapter 15: “Active Molecules” – Brownian Motion (Robert Brown 1773 – 1858)

Brownian motion is an effect arising from the imbalance of molecular impacts on a free microscopic particle. In this sense, molecules have a primitive form of life as they have self-propelled motion. An inherent motion of the molecules underlies the Kinetic theory of gases. 

Chapter 16: The Tragedy of a Genius (John James Waterston 1811 – 1883)

Waterston was the first to introduce the conception that heat and temperature are to be measured by vis viva (kinetic energy). He showed that under equal pressure and volume, the root mean square velocity is inversely proportional to mass density. Waterston, thus, not only corrected the relationship of temperature to velocity but also gave the first statement of the law of equipartition of energy in a mixture at thermal equilibrium. 

Chapter 17: The Conservation of Energy–The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (James Prescott Joule 1818 – 1889)

Joule firmly established the idea that mechanical energy could be transformed into internal energy and thus produce the same effect as “heating” a body, and that a fixed ratio existed between mechanical work and thermal units. Heat is properly defined as energy in transit due solely to a temperature difference.  Joule saw that chemical energy in battery is converted to electrical energy in the circuit and that this in turn is converted into heat. This ultimately established the Law of Conservation of Energy.

Chapter 18: The Range of Molecular Speeds in a Gas (James Clerk Maxwell 1831 – 1879)

Maxwell brilliantly deduced the distribution of molecular speeds in a gas at equilibrium at any temperature. This great step forward in the understanding of the behavior of the elementary particles of gases represents one of the major advances in the progress of the atomic theory of matter. Besides, Maxwell provided a formula for the coefficient of viscosity of a gas which showed this quantity to be independent of pressure, a most unexpected and surprising result.

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MAIN POINTS

  1. Atoms and molecules move by an intrinsic motion with perfect freedom.
  2. The root mean square velocity is inversely proportional to mass density under equal pressure and volume.
  3. The molecular speeds in a gas at any temperature has a certain distribution.
  4. The imbalance of molecular impacts on a free microscopic particle makes it move randomly.
  5. Particles have kinetic energy that depends on their velocity.
  6. Temperature depends upon the velocity of such particles.
  7. Heat and temperature are to be measured by kinetic energy.
  8. Heat is energy in transit due solely to a temperature difference.
  9. Kinetic heat energy of a gas is equally divided between linear and rotational energy.
  10. Fixed ratio exists between mechanical work and thermal units produced.
  11. Energy takes different forms but the total energy is conserved.

THEORY
The atomic and molecular particles have intrinsic motion. This is expressed as inherent kinetic energy. This energy manifests as momentum, heat, chemical activity, and electrical force. It gives rise to the properties of pressure, temperature, volume  and density of gases. The total momentum and energy are conserved.

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (0)

The World of Atom (Part II)

December 24, 2019 – 12:37 PM

Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART II – THE FOUNDATIONS OF ATOMIC CHEMISTRY

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 10: The Birth of Atomic Theory (John Dalton 1766 – 1844)

Dalton was investigating why oxygen and nitrogen remained mixed in air and did not separate, when he accidentally discovered that oxygen and nitrogen combined in definite ratios. Dalton had a physical particle picture of gases, which led him to assume that a chemical reaction is only the combination of an atom of one substance with that of another. This led to the inference that the relative weights of the constituent atoms in compounds could be determined. This established the foundation of atomic chemistry.

Chapter 11: The Volume Combination of Gases (Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac 1778 – 1850)

Gay Lussac showed that if gases enter into chemical reactions, they do so in numerically simple volume ratios, and the volume of the products, if gaseous, may be expressed by simple integral numerical ratios to the volume of the original reactants. This is true for gases only, where the force of cohesion between atoms and molecules is minimum, and where most of the volume is due to the “atmosphere of heat” surrounding the nuclei. The volume ratio is, most likely, also the ratio of atoms and molecules that combine.

Chapter 12: Atoms and Molecules – Avogadro’s Law (Amedeo Avogadro 1776 – 1856)

Avogadro’s principle is that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. By this principle, Avogadro correctly deduced the chemical formula for water, ammonia, nitrous oxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. However, for the principle to be valid it was necessary to introduce a new hypothesis, namely, that the ultimate particles of many of the elementary gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen were molecules i.e., combinations of two, or sometimes more, atoms.

Chapter 13: The Search for Primordial Material (William Prout 1785 – 1850)

The notion that all matter is composed of the same primary substance and that when organized in different ways produces the various elements, occurs far back in antiquity. In Daltonian theory, atoms were distinguished by their different masses. Prout hypothesized that the atoms of all elements are simply combinations of hydrogen. 

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MAIN POINTS

  1. Atoms of different substances combine in definite ratios.
  2. A chemical reaction is such combination of atoms of different substances.
  3. The force of cohesion between atoms and molecules is minimum in gaseous phase.
  4. Gases combine in numerically simple volume ratios.
  5. Equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
  6. The ultimate particles of many elementary gases are combinations of two, or sometimes more, atoms.
  7. The atoms of all elements are simply combinations of hydrogen. 

THEORY
The atom is a spinning nucleus surrounded by a vortex of energy substance. All its mass is concentrated in the nucleus of negligible volume. All its volume comprises of the energy vortex of negligible mass. All different atoms have masses that are multiples of the mass of hydrogen atom. These atoms combine in simple and definite ratios.

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (0)

The World of Atom (Part I)

December 19, 2019 – 4:55 PM

Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART I – THE FOUNDATIONS OF ATOMIC THEORY

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 1: Atomism in Antiquity (Lucretius ca. 99 – 55 B.C.)

Ancients surmised that all matter reduces to atoms that are very small, solid, permanent and indivisible. The atoms move of themselves and are ceaselessly in motion in infinite space.

Chapter 2: Vortices and Particles (Rene Descartes 1596 – 1650)

The world is essentially a group of vortices whose centers appear as the heavenly bodies. Thus, there is continuum of substance, and neither void nor action at a distance exist. Extension cannot be there without substance being there.

Chapter 3: Particles in the Atmosphere (Robert Boyle 1627 – 1691)

Boyle hypothesized that air is composed of several kinds of particles that have different functions. That elasticity (compressibility) of the air arises from static elastic atoms on contact, or alternatively from atoms being caught up in a whirling motion. 

Chapter 4: Matter & Motion (Robert Hooke 1635 – 1703)

Unlike Newton, Hooke considered the particles of all bodies to be in incessant motion, those of different mass having different speeds. A heavy particle has a low vibration frequency, and a light one a high frequency.

Chapter 5: A Wave Theory of Light (Christian Huygens 1629 – 1695)

Huygens accepted Descartes vortices as the scheme of the world and rejected Newton’s universal gravitation, as he was not convinced of the distant-action theory. He supported Descartes’ idea of aether and proposed the wave theory of light. He introduced the idea of partial waves and wavefronts to explain the properties of light.

Chapter 6: Newton on Particles and Kinetics (Isaac Newton 1642 – 1727)

Newton’s mechanics deals with matter that has mass. Newton argued that the geometric nature of reflection and refraction of light could only be explained if light were made of corpuscles because waves do not tend to travel in straight lines. 

Chapter 7: A Kinetic Theory of Gases (Daniel Bernoulli 1700 – 1782)

Daniel Bernoulli introduced the kinetic theory of gases. He postulated that gas particles have intrinsic motion that cannot be suppressed. Heat increases the speed of particles. Thus, heat is converted into mechanical energy.

Chapter 8: The Atom as a Center of Force (Roger Joseph Boscovich 1711 – 1787)

Boscovich pointed out that atoms as hard, rigid and massive spheres require instantaneous change of velocity upon collision. But instantaneous change of velocity presents a discontinuity. Therefore, atoms cannot be hard, rigid and massive spheres. They are point particles with the space between them filled with force. Thus, compression and expansion can occur. 

Chapter 9: Atomic Chemistry Before Dalton (Bryan Higgins 1737-1820, William Higgins 1769 – 1825)

It seems that the ancient elements may be expressed as, earth = solids, air = gases, water = liquids, and fire = energy. According to Higgins, fire (energy) is opposed to attraction (force) as it turns solids into liquids, and liquids into gases. In his theory all different atoms were assumed to have the same weight. The concept of ratios in which atoms combine is not very clear.

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MAIN POINTS

  1. All matter reduces to atoms that are very small, solid, permanent and indivisible.
  2. The atoms are ceaselessly in motion by themselves in infinite space.
  3. There is a continuum of substance that forms all space as its extent.
  4. The world exists as vortices of substance with planets at their center.
  5. Air is composed of elastic particles allowing compressibility.
  6. The particles of all bodies are in incessant motion.
  7. Particles of different mass have different speeds.
  8. Light propagates as a wave. (Huygens)
  9. Light is corpuscular in nature. (Newton)
  10. Gas particles have intrinsic motion that cannot be suppressed.
  11. Heat increases the speed of particles.
  12. Atoms cannot be hard, rigid and massive spheres.
  13. Atoms are point particles with the space between them filled with force.

THEORY
The atom is a vortex in a sea of energy substance. The atomic substance is gradually condensing, until it becomes a spinning mass at the center. The atoms are ceaselessly in motion relative to one another.

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (1)

The Space-Time (old)

October 31, 2019 – 9:50 AM

Here is my view on the reality of space-time.

  • The Euclidean space is an idealization of dimensions of matter.
  • Space is not necessarily discrete like dimensions of matter.
  • Space is not necessarily rigid like dimensions of matter.
  • In reality, space is neither discrete nor rigid.

Here the word “discrete” is used in the sense opposite to “continuous” meaning “apart or detached from others; separate; distinct”. We can talk about dimensions in discrete terms, but we cannot do so with space. Space is a continuous whole.

Here the word “rigid” is used in the sense opposite to “flexible” meaning “firmly fixed or set”. We can talk about units for the dimensions of matter to be fixed, but not so for space.

  • A Euclidean point is an idealization of a location in space.
  • A location in space is not necessarily dimensionless.
  • A location is continuous with the space around it.
  • A location is approximated by a discrete point only when there is matter.

It is matter that fixes locations in space by virtue of being rigid. When there is no matter, we cannot fix or pinpoint locations in space.

  • Calculus approaches continuity from the direction of discreteness.
  • Calculus talks about gradually shrinking infinitesimals in that process.
  • We need mathematics that approaches discreteness from the direction of continuity.
  • Such mathematics will approach discreteness as frequency.

Calculus uses a matter-centric viewpoint that approximates continuity in terms of shrinking infinitesimals. When there is no matter as in the case of electromagnetic fields we cannot use rigid infinitesimals for reference. We may need to use lessening frequency to approach continuity. Here discreteness seems to be provided by frequency.

  • Mathematics considers a discrete point to be a primitive notion.
  • In reality, it is the continuous space, which is a primitive notion.
  • The rigidity of space is a function of disturbance in it.
  • Infinite frequency of disturbance generates total rigidity in space.

We cannot use dimensionless Euclidean point as primitive notion because it is not seen as expanding into a continuous space. But we can use continuous space as primitive notion because we can see it as shrinking to generate a dense point that approaches discreteness. It is this “density” that can be associated with rigidity.

  • Discreteness starts to form as space is disturbed.
  • This discreteness increases with frequency.
  • At a certain threshold  frequency, rotational fields start to form within the electromagnetic fields.
  • The first stable form of such rotational field is the electron.

It is postulated that electromagnetic field is the disturbed space. As this disturbance increases as frequency, pockets of rotational electronic fields appear in the wider electromagnetic field.

  • As these rotational fields grow the high frequencies at their center starts to collapse to form a hard nucleus.
  • The next stable form of this rotational field appears to be the hydrogen atom.
  • Mass is naturally created in the nucleus as the frequency of disturbance increases the most at the center.
  • The mysterious factor here is the role of “frequency”.

Mass is naturally created in the nucleus as the frequency of disturbance increases. The task now is to understand the nature of this disturbance.

The theory of special relativity talks about contraction of space and dilation of time at speeds approaching the speed of light. Such conclusions are subjective because the “observer” in that theory is limited in its observation by the speed of light.

Objectivity exists to the degree observer uses the whole universe as its reference. This means using all physical and mental senses. The moment one uses part of the universe as its reference one’s viewpoint descends into subjectivity. Thus mathematics employed by Einstein’s theory of Special Relativity is subjective.

Objectivity is the consistency among inputs from all physical and mental senses. To the degree this consistency is missing, observation is incomplete and subjective.

Reference: From my response on Quora

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (2)

Substance and Consistency

October 29, 2019 – 3:00 PM

Light is a substance of very small duration. When it disappears at one location, it appears at another location relative to matter. This phenomenon appears as motion. We then relate this motion to energy.

The smaller is the duration, the higher is the motion relative to matter. Here matter can be said to have infinite duration. Therefore, the concept of motion is inverse of duration. Here we are talking about intrinsic motion (relative to itself), and not about apparent motion (relative to something else).

This concept is difficult to grasp because the word “substance” is not defined in physics. The best way to define “substance” scientifically is as follows.

SUBSTANCE is anything that is substantial enough to be sensed.

The degree of substantiality is then defined by the amount of “force” or “impact” sensed. We may call it consistency.

CONSISTENCY is the degree of substantiality of substance.

Physics, therefore, must take into account how we observe or sense things. Physics, as it is understood, does not exist in isolation from us.

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (2)