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Particle and continuum are the subcategories of substance (see Matter, Void and Space). Their extents are defined by space. Both are absent in the void. Current physics has no proper definitions for them.

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Material Particle & Continuum

The idea of particle is a “distinct entity”. Material objects exist as discrete entities in space. A material object  may be broken down into smaller parts, each of which exist as distinct entities. These are particles of matter. The smallest particle of matter is an atom. 

A classical atom is considered to be made up of substance that is distributed uniformly throughout the atom. The configuration of an atom is rigid. The substance of the atom is identified as mass. A rigid arrangement of atoms then constitutes a solid material body. This rigidity produces a “center of mass” such that forces acting on the body may be reduced to a single resultant force acting on that center. Moments due to the forces may also be reduced to a single resultant torque at that center. This center is called the “center of mass”. It allows a rigid material body to be treated as a “point particle”. 

A material particle is distinguished from another material particle in space because of its center of mass. Billiard balls striking each other on a table are material particles. The dust particle floating in a beam of sunlight across the room are also such material particles. Each have a center of mass.

A MATERIAL PARTICLE in space is defined by its center of mass.

If there is no center of mass, then a material particle cannot be distinguished from its surrounding. There exists simply a continuum of substance. Light filling the space is such continuum of substance.

A CONTINUUM of substance has mass density but no center of mass.

An atom of matter may be considered indivisible because it loses its characteristics when divided further. But light is infinitely divisible because it never loses its characteristics when divided.

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The Energy Particle

The “energy particle” is defined by an interaction. It refers to the amount of the substance involved in an interaction. It is not the amount existing in space by itself. A quantum of light is the amount of light involved in an interaction within the detector.  A quantum of light is different for different interactions. This is similar to a chemical agent reacting in different amounts in different chemical reactions. 

An ENERGY PARTICLE is the amount of substance participating in an interaction.

A light quantum is created out of a continuum of light. Such energy particle is always discrete because the interactions can be counted. This is what happens in the photoelectric phenomenon. Discrete interactions do not necessarily imply that light is discrete and indivisible in space. Light is a continuum and infinitely divisible in space though its interactions are discrete and “indivisible”.

A quantum is an energy particle. It has a specific value determined from how it interacts, but that value is part of a continuum.

A QUANTUM is a discrete amount drawn from a continuum by an interaction at the atomic level.

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The Atom 

The atom is a material particle. It has a center of mass. It also has an intrinsic motion as observed indirectly in Brownian motion. The kinetic theory of gases is built on the intrinsic motion of atoms and molecules.

The atom itself consists a nucleus at the center surrounded by an electronic region. The nucleus is only 0.01% of the atom. The rest 99.99% of the atom is the electronic region. The nucleus is extremely dense and almost stationary compared to the electronic region that is 1840 times less dense and moving extremely rapidly. The whole atom is like a flat whirlpool much like a galaxy. It is incorrect to think of atom as being spherical because of the motion inside it. Even the nucleus itself, when magnified, may appear like a flat whirlpool.

The electronic region does not contain center of mass. It is, therefore, a fast-moving continuum in space. There are no orbits of electron particles. There are simply different interactions at different distances from the nucleus. The electronic region seems to decrease in density and increase in motion as it spreads out from the nucleus.

Similarly, the nuclear region appears to increase in density toward the center of the atomic whirlpool. The different nuclear particles are just different interactions within the nucleus.

There is, obviously, a large density gradient between the electronic and nuclear regions. It is possible that this large gradient of density appears as “charge”. More on this later.

The ATOM is a flat whirlpool of a fast-moving continuum of electrons that is thinning in density and increasing in speed as it spreads out from the nucleus.

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The Belief in Physics

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light considered corpuscles of light to be infinitely divisible. In other words, Newton looked at light as a continuum from which any amount could be drawn for energy interaction.

But there seems to be an assumption in physics that energy particles cannot form a continuum in space, that they must have discrete and indivisible existence. This belief goes back to atomism, which considers atoms to be indivisible.

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The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is part of the spectrum of substance. (see The Spectrum of Substance). The EM spectrum is made up of the following layers of electromagnetic radiation:

1. Gamma radiation
2. X-ray radiation
3. Ultraviolet radiation
4. Visible radiation
5. Infrared radiation
6. Terahertz radiation
7. Microwave radiation
8. Radio waves

Each layer is a continuum of substance. It consists of a range of frequencies. All layers may be arranged on a continuous scale of frequencies. The frequency of EM radiation has certain stability. Any effort to change the frequency activates a restoring force similar to the inertia of matter. Thus, EM radiation appears to maintain its frequency throughout the spectrum.

EM radiation resists its frequency from being changed. This is a form of inertia.

The gamma rays are seen to be emitted by the nucleus, and X-rays from inner electrons. This EM spectrum may be seen to be emitted from the electronic region of the atom. Thus the configuration of the atom exists in equilibrium with the EM spectrum.

The EM spectrum exists in equilibrium with the atom.

Maxwell’s electromagnetic cycles may best be compared to Newton’s corpuscles. Each cycle is infinitely divisible like a corpuscle because unit of time is infinitely divisible. The higher is the “frequency” of light, the denser is the concentration of cycles (corpuscles) that make up the radiation. Therefore, the frequency indicates the density of the radiation. According to The Universal Frame of Reference, the speed of light shall decrease with increase in frequency, but this occurs in infinitely small gradients in the electromagnetic spectrum.

EM radiation forms a continuum in space whose density increases (speed decreases) on a very small gradient as frequency increases.

Common to EM spectrum is the concept of photon. The photon is an energy particle (see Particle, Continuum and Atom). This means that photon is the amount of radiation required in its interaction with the electronic region. This amount is proportional to the frequency (density) of radiation.

A photon is an energy particle of radiation, meaning it is the amount of radiation required in its interaction with the electronic region

Per the relationships, E = hf, and E = mc², each cycle has energy equal to the Planck’s constant (h), and density equal to the constant (h/c²). As we move up the spectrum, the frequency increases and both wavelength and period shrink together. The radiation (field) becomes increasingly denser and more focused. This is perceived as quantization (condensation of energy into mass) at higher frequencies.

EM radiation becomes denser and more penetrating as frequency increases.

The constants described above ensure the continuity of different regions of the field that are at different frequencies. Therefore, these regions are bounded by smooth gradients of frequency. These gradients manifest as tension (charge) or force. These forces then become part of the field. We recognize these forces as gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc. These forces differ in their nature depending on the sharpness of the gradient as well as on their relative position in the spectrum.

The gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear forces exists in the continuum (field) because of frequency or density gradients.

As forces become stronger with frequency, inertia also increases to balance them. If forces are represented by frequency gradient (increased oscillations relative to itself) then inertia is represented by quantization (increased condensation). Basic inertia appears as permeability and permittivity. It balances the conversion between electric (kinetic and linear) and magnetic (potential and rotational) aspects of a cycle. This shows up in the constant rate of propagation of the electromagnetic disturbance within the field.

The forces within the field are balanced by quantization (inertia).

With increasing frequency gradient the increased quantization seems to develop into a dense structure of mass. This structure appears to be made up of high frequency of infinitesimal cycles. The quantization into mass starts out like “eddies in flow”. This shows the primary characteristic of mass to be rotational. We may identify these “eddies” as the multitudes of quantum particles.

Quantum particles arise out of the condensation of EM radiation.

The rotational nature of mass tends to pin it down and reduce its linear motion. This also increases inertia (density). As the density of quantum particles increases their intrinsic motion decreases (see The Universal Frame of Reference).

Rotation is the characteristics that accompanies increasing condensation into mass, and inertia.

The application of external force invokes inertia, and inertia seems to add to the density of the substance, thus decreasing its intrinsic linear motion. This may describe the conservation of force of Faraday. This appears to contradict Newton’s laws of motion, which describe force in terms of acceleration of an object. This contradiction is resolved when we notice that the “acceleration” in terms of distance cannot be observed when there is no other object around. A continually “accelerated” object simply feels as if it has mass added to it.

External force converts into internal mass or density.

This brings up the difference in the perception of absolute motion from relative motion. This topic is taken up in the next chapter.

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We always observe the trajectory of a moving body from a viewpoint. Einstein identifies that viewpoint with a material body, such as, a platform or a train. In other words, we can observe the trajectory of a moving body either from the platform or from the train.

This identification of viewpoint with a material body gives us a co-ordinate system. Space is then defined as an extension of this reference body. It expands and contracts just like the reference body. The reference coordinate system is as rigid as the reference body. In other words, it endures in time at the same rate as the reference body. Therefore, the space and time are unique to the reference co-ordinate system.

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The Principle of Relativity

Einstein states his principle of relativity (in the restricted sense) as follows:

“If, relative to K, K’ is a uniformly moving co-ordinate system devoid of rotation, then natural phenomena run their course with respect to K’ according to exactly the same general laws as with respect to K.”

The theory of special relativity (SR) looks at the uniform motion of K’ with respect to K. The magnitude of this uniform motion may vary.  Since there is no external force causing different uniform motions, these motions must be a characteristic of the co-ordinate system. According to The Logic of Motion these uniform motions are an expression of inertia (mass concentration) associated with the co-ordinate system.

This logic generalizes the classical laws, incorporated in the co-ordinate system, to also include the phenomena of optics and electrodynamics.

This logic, however, was not considered by Einstein. In its place Einstein proposed the principle of relativity. See The Principle of Relativity (In the Restricted Sense).

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Co-ordinate System at Rest

According to The Logic of Motion, a co-ordinate system of infinite inertia may be regarded as being absolutely at rest. We may call it K₀ and choose it as our body of reference. All motion relative to K₀ will then be absolute.

Einstein argues that since earth is in motion, it is obviously not K₀. Therefore, its motion should play a part in the general laws of nature. But the motion of earth has revealed no physical non-equivalence of different directions. Einstein, therefore, concludes that there is no co-ordinate system that can be absolutely at rest.

The weakness of this argument is that the relative motion of earth is being confused with its absolute motion. The high mass concentration of earth shows its absolute motion is close to zero. It is 4 times denser than the sun. Denser than earth would be a neutron star or a black hole. Their absolute motion shall be still closer to zero.

Einstein’s conclusion that there is no co-ordinate system at absolute rest may be in error.

The higher is the mass concentration, the closer is the co-ordinate system to being at rest.

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