Category Archives: Science

Einstein’s Mathematical Object

July 28, 2019 – 2:28 PM

Einstein replaced the classical concept of stationary aether of uniform density by a mathematical object that is neither stationary nor in motion, and which has no substance. If correct results are obtained from the mathematics of relativity, then Einstein’s mathematical object is likely equivalent to a fast moving substance of variable density.

The general notion of substance is anything that can be felt or detected because it has “innate force”. The substance may, therefore, be expressed as matter, the flowing electronic fluid, or the rapidly traveling light. Even the far reaching gravitational force may be classified as substance.

Einstein replaced the classical concept of stationary aether of uniform density by a mathematical object of no substance.

NOTE: The 19th century concept of “stationary aether” was discredited, and correctly so. There is no stationary and uniform aether. But there is aether in the original sense of substance. Currently physics narrowly identifies the word “substance” with matter. Light is not matter, but, more correctly, light is a substance.

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The Original Aether

The word aether denoted the ‘upper atmosphere’ and by extension the ‘substance that permeated the cosmos,’ from which the stars and planets were made. The word substance denoted the ‘essence’ of something substantial; and the word cosmos denoted ‘order’ pointing to the orderliness of creation. Aether, in this sense, is the substance of this universe. Aether then expresses itself as light and also as the stars that shine so brightly.

The original aether may be described by the following spectrum of substance:

  1. Black Hole material
  2. Nuclear matter
  3. Electronic particles
  4. Gamma radiation
  5. X-ray radiation
  6. Ultraviolet radiation
  7. Visible radiation
  8. Infrared radiation
  9. Terahertz radiation
  10. Microwave radiation
  11. Radio waves
  12. Gravity
  13. Space
  14. Void
  15. Emptiness

The material objects are described in terms of their mass. The electromagnetic substance is described in terms of its frequency. Matter at the upper end is made up of very high frequencies. Space at the lower end denotes very low frequency. As frequency approaches zero we approach the void.

The physical substance thins out continually from Black hole to Emptiness.

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Substance and Geometry

Accompanying the idea of substance is the mathematical abstraction of geometry. Space represents the boundaries of matter. Void represents the boundaries of all substance.

The centers of mass of material bodies are represented by geometrical points. The centers “touch” each other through their intervening force, represented by geometrical distances.

The geometric distances are filled with forces and substances of variable density. The variable density is represented by interplay of durations, or motion.

The fourth dimension is not time but “duration” of substance, which may be represented objectively by mass density (or force density).

Each point in a space-duration reference frame has three spatial dimensions and a dimension of duration represented by density, frequency or inverse of velocity. This tells us that distances shall be much shorter if all densities are uniform and equal to the density of matter.

The space-duration reference frame is a more objective representation of the mathematically subjective space-time reference frame of Einstein.

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (0)

The Classical Assumption

July 27, 2019 – 2:16 PM

Since ancient times, aether has been theorized as a substance that permeates the cosmos. Aether did not play any part in Newton’s corpuscular theory of light. But when light was discovered to have wave properties, physicist started to consider light as a disturbance that traveled through aether. This meant that light was pure motion, or “pure energy”. This was contrary to Newton’s corpuscular theory that treated light as rapidly moving particles (substance in motion).

The classical assumption was that light was a wave motion (pure energy) traveling in aether.

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Faraday

Faraday saw that atomic particles touched each other through force that existed between them. The lines of force became a powerful reality to him in the electrical and magnetic phenomena. He saw force as an extension of matter. Matter was concentrated lines of force. This was consistent with Newton’s view that equated matter with an “innate force”. To Faraday, force became a much finer form of substance.

In his paper on Thoughts on Ray Vibrations (1846), Faraday says,

“The view which I am so bold to put forth considers, therefore, radiation as a kind of species of vibration in the lines of force which are known to connect particles and also masses of matter together. It endeavors to dismiss the aether, but not the vibration.”

According to Faraday light was a vibration in the lines of force that connected particles of matter. Force was the substance of light.

Thus Faraday returned to Newton’s idea of light as “substance in motion”.

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Maxwell

Maxwell focused on the mathematical description of the electromagnetic force outlined by Faraday. He saw electromagnetism as a study in states of stress and strain. In seeking consistency with Newtonian dynamics, Maxwell basically treated electrical lines of potential as having uniform density same as material particles. He used the concept of aether, which is uniform throughout space.

Maxwell did not fully implement Faraday’s conception of lines of force. These lines, through their varying thickness, represented varying density of “force substance”. He, therefore, missed the phenomenon of quantization discovered later by Einstein.

Thus, Maxwell adhered to wave theory and popularized the concept of pure energy. According to this theory, the energy density of light was proportional to the square of the amplitude. Maxwell’s equations do not describe the motion of charged particles but the effect that passes through them at the speed of light.

In Maxwell’s model, light remained a wave motion (pure energy) traveling in aether.

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Einstein

In his 1905 paper on light quanta, Einstein set up a model of blackbody radiation similar to the model in kinetic theory of gases. He then reached the following conclusion.

“We thus reach the conclusion: the higher the energy density and the longer the wavelengths of radiation, the more usable is the theoretical basis used by us; for short wavelengths and low radiation densities, however, the basis fails completely”.

Einstein showed that Maxwell’s classical assumption is valid at longer wavelengths (low frequencies). As frequency increases the energy distribution becomes more discontinuous in space like particles. Einstein thus showed that Planck’s postulate of energy quanta was more than just a mathematical device.

But Einstein also assumed radiation to be vibrations in aether. As variable frequency required a medium of variable density, aether of constant density could not serve. Einstein, therefore, dropped the idea of aether, and decided that light was “vibrations in mathematical space”.

Einstein kept the classical concept that light is “pure energy”, except he replaced Maxwell’s constant aether by a variable mathematical space.

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Quantum Mechanics

Einstein concludes in his 1905 paper:

“According to the assumption considered here, when a light ray starting from a point is propagated, the energy is not continuously distributed over an ever increasing volume, but it consists of a finite number of energy quanta, localised in space, which move without being divided and which can be absorbed or emitted only as a whole”.

This is the view of light quanta as “pure energy” in a mathematical space of variable density. Contrast this with light as a substance of variable density moving in real space. The latter is the proposal of Faraday of vibrating lines of force of variable thickness in real space.

Like Maxwell, Einstein also couldn’t see light to be made up of a “force field” that had variable density in real space (see the chapter The Quantum Particle). This created confusion between real and mathematical space, and placed quantum mechanics on a firm mathematical footing. 

Both classical and quantum mechanics view light as “pure energy” that requires either aether or mathematical “substance” for its existence.

The actual breakdown of classical mechanics occurred when the idea of quantum confirmed light to be a “substance in motion” and not a “motion in hypothetical aether”.

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By vinaire | Also posted in Physics Book | Comments (0)

The Quantum Particle (old)

July 26, 2019 – 1:37 PM

A quantum was, at first, proposed as a mathematical concept by Max Planck that explained the distribution of the Black body radiation. It was a groundbreaking concept in the sense that it expressed energy as a function of frequency instead of amplitude of the waveform.

Einstein, in his groundbreaking paper on Light quanta, was able to show that the entropy of monochromatic radiation follows the same rules as the entropy of a perfect gas. Einstein thus showed that Planck’s postulate of energy quanta was more than a mathematical device. It was real in a physical sense.

In the classical view, wave represents a motion traveling through a medium. In this view the particles of medium simply oscillate about a stationary location and do not move with the wave. But this is not so with light. Einstein showed that there was no stationary aether in which light moved as a disturbance. Instead light approximated the motion of the particles of gas in which the particles themselves move. This meant that light was its own substance that moved like a wave.The frequency of light represents its density as a substance. The substance of light becomes denser as its frequency increases.

Energy of light is a function of its frequency because light is a substance that is in motion. Light is not a classical wave that represents pure motion in a medium.

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The Model for a Quantum Particle

A material particle is like a “point particle” with all its mass concentrated at one point. A material object is made up of discrete point particles rigidly structured relative to each other. Because of this rigid structure, a large material body, like the earth also has a center of mass.

The uncertainty principle essentially says that the location of a quantum particle cannot be pinned. In other words, a quantum particle has dimensions. At the same time a quantum particle is not structured because it does not have a center of mass. But it has a density. We shall refer to this density as “mass density” instead of energy density to emphasize that light has substance that is in motion.

If we assume a point particle to have the mass and dimensions of the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, then an electron of the same mass shall be about 1900 times the size of the nucleus (about the size of the hydrogen atom), and a photon of the same mass shall be 270 million times the size of the hydrogen nucleus. So, it is incorrect to think of a quantum particle as a point, or rigid particle like that of matter.

As explained in the chapter Mass Density and Motion, the electronic region is in rapid motion around the nucleus because of its low density. An electron roughly the size of an atom shall serve as a model for a quantum particle. But a photon as a quantum particle shall be millions of time larger in size compared to an electron with corresponding reduction in its density and increase in velocity.

The quantum particles do not have individual centers of mass. Therefore, they are not discrete like material particles; instead they form a fluid like continuum of substance. This substance moves very rapidly with wave-like characteristics.

The lower is the density of the quantum particle, the larger is its size and the greater is its velocity. The quantum particles combine to form a fluid like continuum with wave-like characteristics.

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Limitation of Quantum Mechanics

In the absence of a realistic model of a quantum particle, quantum mechanics has become unreal and mathematically abstract.

In his 1905 paper on light quanta,  Einstein makes the assumption: “the energy of a ponderable body cannot be split into arbitrarily many, arbitrarily small parts”. In other words, Einstein assumes that the solidity of a particle is fixed in terms of its density. It cannot be cut into smaller particles indefinitely, while its density remains fixed.

The truth is that the solidity of a particle can become less solid without limit.

In the essay, Relativity & Problem of Space, Einstein interpreted Newton as follows,

But in this [Newton’s] theory, acceleration can only denote “acceleration with respect to space”. Newton’s space must thus be thought of as “at rest”, or at least as “unaccelerated”, in order that one can consider the acceleration, which appears in the law of motion, as being a magnitude with any meaning.

But acceleration is a change in velocity of an object, which relates to its density. Space cannot be at rest as it has no substance. If the density of space is zero then its velocity is infinite.

This confusion of basic concepts essentially derailed quantum mechanics theoretically.

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Mass Density and Motion

July 23, 2019 – 11:24 AM

As shown in the chapter on Mass Density and Field, the range of mass density was extended greatly with the discovery of the nuclear and electronic regions in the atom.

The density of ordinary matter is the average of the nuclear and electronic mass densities. This is so for solids and liquids. For gases the atoms and molecules are separated by space filled with electromagnetic and gravitational fields.

The mass density of electronic and other fields is beyond the range of material densities. In fact the mass density of field, in general, is so low that it is replaced by an equivalent “energy” value. 

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Equivalency of Mass and Energy

Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2 shows that the energy to mass ratio is c2 to 1. Therefore, it is practical to represent infinitesimal measures of mass by an equivalent energy value that can be measured.

The mass density of the electronic region is so small that we represent it by an equivalent energy value. But that does not mean that the electronic field is not a substance.

The electronic field does not stop being a substance, just because its mass is represented by equivalent energy value.

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Motion of Electrons

Motion exists because substance changes its location in space. The greater is the duration of substance the longer it stays at a location and the lesser is its motion. That means the more enduring a substance is the smaller is its inherent motion.

We notice that ephemeral substances do not have as much endurance as solid objects. Therefore, mass density is a direct measure of the endurance and inherent motion of a substance. The lesser is the mass density, the greater is its inherent motion. We see this in the inherent motion of the electronic substance relative to the nucleus.

In the atom, the electronic region is in rapid motion relative to the nucleus because of the large mass density differential.

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Motion: Matter versus Field

The mass density of electromagnetic (EM) radiation is much less than the mass density of the electronic region in the atom. In general, the mass densities in the field region are many orders of magnitude less than the mass densities in the material region. This is reflected in the velocity of light being many orders of magnitude greater than the velocity of a material body, such as, the earth.

It appears that the lesser is the mass density of a substance, the greater is its velocity. This velocity is indicative of an intrinsic motion, and not of relative motions. There are many examples of intrinsic motion in the macroscopic material world in the form of the brownian motion and in the agitation of gas molecules.

There exists instrinsic motion in substances due to differences in their mass densities.

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Motion of Matter

The mass density in the material region may be called inertia. This is so with solid and liquids where atoms are concentrated. Gases shall be excluded from this consideration unless they are liquefied or frozen.

We may, therefore, expect a material object to be fixed in its natural velocity. If the material object is forced to accelerate by the application of external force, it will return to its natural velocity when that force is removed. This conclusion modifies what Newton proposed.

If a material object is continually accelerated by the application of a constant force (as in a gravitational field), then its inertia might decrease. This change, however, may be imperceptible because of energy to mass ratio is c2 to 1.

The following conclusions of the theory of special relativity become questionable.

  • Does mass increases with increasing velocity? The opposite appears to be true.
  • Can a material object be accelerated to the velocity of light without reducing its inertia? This doesn’t seem to be so.

Many scientific beliefs have been inspired by incorrect interpretations of mathematics, as in the case of the special theory of relativity.

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Motion of Field

The mass density of the EM radiation may be approximated by its frequency. The higher is the frequency the greater seems to be the mass density of the field. We may, therefore, expect the velocity of the field substance to decrease with increasing frequency.

The velocity of light that has been measured is essentially the velocity of visible light. We assume this velocity to be the same throughout the EM spectrum, but that may not be so. This assumption is the outcome of Maxwell’s theory, which, by default, assumes constant mass density for aether, the medium of whole EM spectrum.

The gravitational field is expected to have much lesser mass density and frequency than those in the EM spectrum. Therefore, its velocity is expected to be much higher than the velocity of light

On the basis of mass density the speed of gravitational field is expected to be much greater than the velocity of light.

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Absolute Motion

Absolute motion is the motion that does not depend on anything external to the moving object for its existence or specific nature. Thus, the motion, which depends only on the mass density of the substance, may be deemed absolute.

A substance of infinite inertia is expected to be at absolute rest. In other words, any substance at absolute rest shall have infinite inertia. If there is stationary aether, its inertia would be infinite. The empty space has zero inertia. Therefore, empty space shall have infinie velocity.

Einstein was right to discard the notion of stationary aether.

Acceleration is the change in velocity relative to the velocity of the object. Therefore, acceleration shall also fall under the category of absolute motion. Acceleration may also be seen as change in relative velocity. Relative velocity however, cannot be determined without an external reference. But acceleration can be sensed in one’s bones without an external reference.

Absolute motion exists.

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The Logic of Field

July 22, 2019 – 5:27 PM

As shown in the chapter on The Logic of Substance, both matter and light are substance, which means they have mass. The range of mass density of matter is from 1.93 x 104 kg/m3 for Gold to 9.0 x 10-2 kg/m3 for Hydrogen (at Standard Temperature and Pressure). Compared to this range, the mass density of light is so small that it is replaced by an equivalent “energy” value. The unfortunate result of this has been that light is no longer looked upon as a substance, but as energy.

When it comes to light and other non-atomic particles, mass density may be referred to as mass concentration.

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Mass Concentration

Much of the differences in mass concentration, in the case of matter, come from differences in the concentration of atoms. Atoms are highly concentrated in solids and liquids, but not so concentrated in gases. Atoms themselves seem to have a much narrower range of mass concentrations.

When we look at the mass concentration within atoms, it is an average of the mass concentrations of the nucleus and surrounding electrons. The nucleus is made up of a discrete number of protons and neutrons, that have about the same mass concentration. We may say that that the mass concentration of all nuclei is just about constant. The nucleus occupies about 0.01% of the atomic volume. Electrons fill rest of the space of the atom around the nucleus. The masses of electron and proton are in the ratio 1:1840. So the mass concentration of the nucleus is very high—much higher than the mass concentration of matter.

The mass concentration of an atom is practically constant. The mass concentration of matter reduces as space between the atoms increases.

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The Atom

The atom divides sharply into nuclear and electronic regions. The mass concentration declines suddenly from the nuclear to electronic region in the ratio 1840 to 1. The sharp gradient at the interface of the two regions is seen as CHARGE. More on this later.

The nuclear region is populated by “material particles” that have center of mass. The property of center of mass makes one particle distinct from another. This property underlies the discreteness of material particles.

When the center of mass is not there as in the fast moving electronic region, the “particles” cannot be perceived as discrete. The electrons, therefore, appear to form a fluid ring around the nucleus, much like the ring of the Saturn. The old “solar system” model of the atom has long been discarded.

The atom is like a point nucleus encircled by a large Saturnian ring made of rapidly moving electronic fluid.

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The Field Concept

The large Saturnian ring of electronic fluid around the nucleus gives us the first realistic concept of the field. This field is not abstract. It is substantial with appreciable mass concentration. There are no centers of mass in field particles. So the field is a continuum of substance in motion, much like a flowing fluid.

The electronic field has substance of very low mass concentration compared to the nucleus. The substance of the nucleus is considered as matter, but the substance of electronic field is not. The electronic field is very thin, almost ephemeral, flowing around the nucleus.

The fundamental property of a field is that it is a fast moving fluid substance with no center of mass type particles.

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Electron and Photon Fields

Electrons and photons are not excitations jumping out of their respective fields. They are rapidly moving fields of substance. There is no stationary field just like there is no stationary aether. The motion of field arises from its low mass concentration as explained later.

Light is the “photon field”. Its mass concentration is still less than that of electron field. Therefore, its velocity is much greater. Light is classified as an electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Its spread in space is much wider than that of electronic field.

The wavelengths of light are much larger than that of electron field. The impact of light is much lesser than that of electron field.

The rapid flow of field gives it wave-like properties. The mass concentration of field gives it quantum (particle-like) properties.

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The Gravitational Field

As the field spreads wider its becomes thinner and it substance is recognized only because of its impact or force. The gravitational field is spread out over the whole universe. Its substance is so thinned out that we may conceive it simply as force. Thus, gravity may be thought of as a very rapidly flowing force.

The speed and wavelengths of the gravitational field are yet to be determined, but they are expected to be much greater than those of light. This logical view is very different from what is generally believed in quantum physics.

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