ATOMIC PHYSICS

—A—

ALPHA RADIATION
Alpha radiation is governed by strong nuclear force.

ANTIMATTER
The antimatter particle of electron Is a positron. The difference between matter and antimatter is that they have opposite electric charge. If you combine matter and antimatter, they annihilate in a huge burst of energy.

ATOM
Maxwell and other physicists saw atom as the smallest, indivisible unit of matter. Faraday saw atom as the center of force. The concentrated force appears as mass. The ATOM is a whirlpool of substance that is thinning in density and increasing in speed as it spreads out from the nucleus. The highly dense nucleus appears as the “stationary” center of mass. The immediate substance surrounding the nucleus is the rapidly whirling continuum of electrons.

(1905) Einstein shows the evidence of actual atoms through the demonstration of Brownian motion…

ATOMIC NUMBER
The atomic number of a chemical element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus. In an uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.

ATOMIC SPECTRA
—structure of consistencies …

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atomic structure amounts to gradients of consistencies within the atom.

(1888) The identifying energy level structure of hydrogen atom is discovered in greater detail. This later contributed to working out the structure of an atom.

(1902) Atoms bond together through shared electrons… 4 pairs (eight electrons) are needed to achieve a stable configuration… This leads to a theory of “cubical atom”… electrons provide major grouping of consistencies. An electron itself may have sub-groupings …

(1904) Eight appears to be a preferred number in the context of bonding of atoms… atoms share bonds in a certain way … seems to refer to its vortex nature …

—B—

BETA RADIATION
Beta radiation is governed by weak nuclear force. In Beta decay a neutron is transmuting into a proton. There is an imbalance of energy and angular momentum in beta decay.

BOSONS
In the quantum world, forces are caused by the exchange of particles. Bosons are force carrying particles that are responsible for transmitting three of the four known forces. Bosons are like free flowing energy and not energy in the form of vortices. The mass of bosons seems to be inverse of the force they carry. In that sense, a graviton shall have infinite mass. 

BROWNIAN MOTION
(1905) Einstein shows the evidence of actual atoms through the demonstration of Brownian motion…

—C—

CHARGE:
Charge is the dynamic motion of field-substance. (See MASS)

CONSTANTS
Velocity of light ‘c’ = ~ 299,792 km/s or 3 × 10⁸ m/s

Mass of neutron = 1.675 × 10⁻²⁷ kg
Mass of proton = 1.673 × 10⁻²⁷ kg (equivalent energy = 0.939 GeV)
Radius of a proton = ~ 0.84 x 10^-15 m
Wavelength of proton = 9.0×10⁻¹² m

Mass of electron = 9.109×10⁻³¹ kg (equivalent energy = 0.511 MeV)
Wavelength of electron = 3.3×10⁻¹⁰ m
Velocity of electron = ~ 2200 km/s

Bohr radius of Hydrogen atom = ~ 0.529 × 10^-10 meters
Volume of Hydrogen atom = ~ 6.2×10⁻³¹ m³ 
Energy of electron in ground state (hydrogen) = -13.6 eV = 2.18e-18 J

Ratio of the proton/electron masses = ~ 1836
Ratio of Hydrogen atom/proton radii = ~ 63,000

Mass of Sun = 1.9891 × 10³⁰ kilograms
Mass of Earth = 5.9722 × 10²⁴ kilograms
Mass of Mars = 6.39 × 10²³ kilograms

Velocity of Earth = 29.8 km/s
Velocity of Mars = 24.08 km/s

Radius of Earth Orbit = 1.5 x 10⁸ kilometers
Radius of Mars Orbit = 2.28 x 10⁸ kilometers

Boltzmann constant = 1.38064852 × 10^-23 m² kg s^-2 K^-1
Avogadro number =6.02214076×10²³
Gas constant R = 8.31446261815324 J⋅K⁻¹⋅mol⁻¹
The equivalent energy for 1 gm is 5.625 × 10³² eV
1 eV = 1.60218e-19 J

COPENHAGEN INTERPRETATION
(Bohr and Heisenberg): Wave equation means that the electron was simultaneously everywhere, however, when you detect it, the location of the electron is found in a certain location, with the probability determined by the square of the wave function. (Note: The probability seemingly relates to the consistency of electronic substance at a location within the atom.)

CURRENT
The use of the term current is historical and it stems from the fact that a particle was moving.

—D—

DECAY
—transformation of substance from mass to EM  through cascading consistencies …

DIRAC EQUATION
This equation successfully blended quantum mechanics and special relativity, but it also incorporated the quantum mechanical spin of the particles involved. Dirac’s equation explicitly brought magnetism into the picture and predicted antimatter. 

—E—

ELECTROWEAK FORCE
It combines Electromagnetism and Weak Force together… the Higgs field is also inextricably tied in with them

ELECTRICITY
Example is lightning… Began with observation of static electricity… positive and negative electricity… Coulomb’s Law works for point charges only… ‘q’ is the symbol of charge… Galvani (1780) discovered that life and electricity were intertwined. Life itself is partially electrical… Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) discovered of battery…

ELECTRIC SPARK
In the experiment conducted by Hertz, the spark occurred more easily in ultraviolet light, because the ultraviolet light had a frequency closer to the frequency of electrons.

ELECTRON
The consideration of electrons as “particles” comes from a mathematical treatment of discrete sub-atomic reactions. When electrons shift in their energy, the photon field appears. Within an electron “whirlpool” there are increasing consistencies from its periphery to the center. These consistencies relate to the electromagnetic frequency.

(1897) Discovery of electron as an actual particle of high charge to mass ratio.

there is inertia and not mass… high consistency (manifested as charge) and high motion (manifested as inertia)… inertia in electrons is confused with its mass… 

ELECRON SPIN 
Spin is a conserved quantity carried by elementary particles. The existence of electron spin angular momentum is inferred from experiments with atoms.

ELECTROWEAK THEORY
The ideas combining weak isospin and hypercharge with ideas of Higgs field provide the forces of electromagnetism and the weak force.

ENERGY (NEWTON)
Newton’s concept of energy is related to the motion of matter. The motion of matter occurs with imperceptible changes in its consistency. That change in consistency may be considered in terms of “force.” 

EQUILIBRIUM
Electronic and nuclear substances transforming between each other at a steady rate.

—F—

FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS
Each Feynman diagram is really just an equation in disguise. The combination of Feynman diagrams to set up the equations and perturbation theory to simplify the solutions is what makes this field possible at all. It turns out that the probability of any one of the doodles depends heavily on the number of emissions or absorptions. Particle physicists use the word “vertex” to describe either an emission or absorption because it is often drawn with straight lines that come together. The more vertices, the less likely they are to occur. In fact, each vertex means that that particular doodle happens 1% of the time as often as a doodle with 1 fewer vertices. Given such a big difference between the different number of vertices, we can use perturbation theory to vastly simplify the situation.

FLAVOR
Flavor indicates things that are pretty similar, yet distinct. Neither electromagnetism nor the strong force can change a particle’s flavor, but the weak force can. In particle physics, flavor refers to the species of an elementary particle. The Standard Model counts six flavors of quarks and six flavors of leptons. They are conventionally parameterized with flavor quantum numbers that are assigned to all subatomic particles of spin 1/2.

FORCE
Force changes the intrinsic motion of an object. When the intrinsic motion is forced to increase, the consistency of the object decreases by a very small amount. When the constant force is removed, the inertia and the inherent motion is restored. 

FORCES
Force is better understood as interaction… some changes are caused by changing the particles identity without actually moving it… The five known forces are

1. Gravity
2. Electromagnetism… electricity and magnetism… light and chemistry
3. Strong Force… binds protons and neutron in the nucleus of atoms
4. Weak Force… responsible for some forms of radioactivity
5. Higgs field… gives mass to subatomic particles.

—G—

GLUON
The gluon is a boson that mediates the strong force.

GRAND UNIFIED THEORY
There are two distinct theories:

1. Einstein’s theory of General Relativity
2. Standard Model of Particle Physics

These two theories are not totally compatible. The standard model has its own holes, and neither theory explains the two substances called dark matter and dark energy, which are needed to describe the evolution of the universe. Dark matter and dark energy may have something to do with the thought substance.

—H—

HIGGS BOSON
A new particle that makes the interactions in the Higgs field possible. Higgs boson is the final missing piece of the Standard Model that was found in 2012.

HIGGS FIELD
A new kind of energy field throughout the universe that can give mass to subatomic particles. The Higgs field can give some particles mass and not others. Higgs field appears to be the most fundamental field mathematically, and now confirmed by experiments. 

Higgs field gives a particle mass by slowing it down. The existence of the field implies the existence of the Higgs boson, which is a particle that you can actually detect.

NOTE: In a way, it unifies the Standard Model of Particle Physics into one. It now provides a tool to dig further mathematically to discover the identity of Dark Matter, Dark Energy, etc.

HYPERCHARGE
Weak hypercharge is kind of like electric charge, but it’s just the weak charge. Weak hypercharge predicts one massless force particle that interacts with the weak charge. 

—I—

INERTIA
Inertia is the tendency of an object to maintain its inherent motion. The inherent motion corresponds to the consistency of the object. Any effort to change that inherent motion is resisted by the consistency of the object. But if the consistency can be changed, the inherent motion will also change as a result. Increase in consistency would mean a reduction in motion. A decrease in consistency would mean increase in motion. 

ISOSPIN
Weak isospin relates to particles that the weak force can’t distinguish. The weak isospin interaction predicts three kinds of force-carrying massless particles: two that change the identity of two particles one way or the other, and one that doesn’t change anything.

—J—

—K—

—L—

LEAST ACTION
The principle is that the universe follows the path of least action. It is a path that minimizes the difference between kinetic and potential energy integrated over time. Action is expressed in the units of energy multiplied by time. This principle uses energy to solve problems.

LEPTONS 
Leptons are the lightest of the subatomic particles surrounding the nucleus (they have low consistency). They don’t feel the strong nuclear force. They all feel the weak force, and their interaction with the electromagnetic force is mixed. Like heavier quarks, the heaver leptons decay very quickly.

—M—

MASS
Mass is a very high degree of consistency that is the property of matter. Mass has the property of being concentrated to a point and discrete.

MUON
Muon was discovered in 1936 in the radiation from space. It is about 10% of proton. Muon is not found in the atom and it plays no role in nuclear physics or chemistry. Later it was found to be a heavy cousin of electron.

—N—

NEUTRINO
As proposed by Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli, the neutrino was an electrically neutral particle that experienced the weak nuclear force and had very little mass. It also had a quantum mechanical spin the same as protons, neutrons, and electrons. Neutrino was discovered in 1951. It verified Fermi’s theory of weak interactions. Neutrinos are leptons without charge. They only experience the weak force. They are ghostlike with extremely small mass. All neutrinos are left-handed and all antineutrinos are right-handed. Neutrinos were emitted in beta decay, which were low energy. But the neutrinos from pi meson decay were high energy. In experiments, high energy beam of neutrinos (that came from muon) only made muons.

NOTE: It seems like neutrinos represent a very smooth gradient of consistency in the electronic region. They are more like patterns that shift, rather than particles.

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear Physics is the physics of the strong force. That’s what holds protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The strong force cannot distinguish between protons and neutrons.

—O—

ORBITAL
Bohr Model (1913): There are stable and discrete orbits among which electrons may shift. Broglie (1924): The wave nature of electrons explains the stable orbitals of Boht’s atom. Shrödinger (1925): An orbital is a wave function describing the state of a single electron in an atom. The idea of orbitals has a huge impact on chemistry. The similar elements of a column in periodic table have the same number of electrons in the outermost orbital. These are the electrons that participate in chemical reactions. It unified a century of chemical knowledge.

—P—

PARADIGM
In science and philosophy, a paradigm is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitute legitimate contributions to a field. The word paradigm is Greek in origin, meaning “pattern”, and is used to illustrate similar occurrences.

PARITY
The electromagnetic force treats matter particles and antimatter particles equally; for example, you could swap the meaning of matter and antimatter and the equations for electromagnetism wouldn’t need to be changed. This idea that you can change something big, such as the meaning of matter and antimatter, without making any substantial change to your theory is a huge idea for unifying modern physics and is central to building a grand unified theory [deep symmetries]. The act of swapping left and right, up and down, and forward and backward is called changing the parity of the situation. And if you make all of those changes and you can’t tell the difference, your parity is said to be +1. If you make all of those changes and you get the opposite, the parity is −1. And if neither situation holds, the term “parity” doesn’t apply.

Parity is a property of a physical system characterized by the behavior of the sign of its wave function when all spatial coordinates are reversed in direction. The wave function either remains unchanged (even parity) or changes in sign (odd parity)

Parity should be conserved, meaning that the quantity should never change. A particle that decayed sometimes in positive and sometimes in negative parity did not conserve parity. Wu’s experiment with Co decay expected electrons to decay both upward or downward in equal numbers to conserve parity. However, electrons were found to always decay downward. This meant that in weak-force decays, there was a clear preference for right or left. 

PARTICLE PHYSICS
Modern particle physics was born in 1936 with the discovery of particles, such as, positron and muon, in the radiation from space, that played no role in nuclear physics or chemistry. The Standard Model of Particle Physics seems to be hindered by its lack of proper visualization of its mathematics. Its visualization takes the material approach. It is not abstract enough.

PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have identical values for all four of their quantum numbers. In other words, every electron in an atom has a unique quantum state.

PHOTON
The photon is a boson that mediates the electromagnet force.

PI MESON (PION)
Pi meson was discovered in 1946 in radiation from space. It was also produced as the result of high-energy particle collision. It was found  to be involved in holding the nucleus together. It decayed into a muon and neutrino.

POSITRON
Positron was the first anti-matter particle discovered in 1932 in the radiation from space.

—Q—

QUARKS
The quarks are the heaviest particles in the nucleus (they have high consistency). There are 6 different types of quarks. These are mathematical constructs that show nuclear structure. They have charges. They experience all types of forces. Some quarks appear in stable atoms, others are extremely unstable.

—R—

RADIOACTIVITY
(1896) Discovery of radioactivity… The nucleus undergoes radioactive decay. A neutron may convert into proton or vice versa. Radioactive decay of highly energetic nucleus produces highly energetic photons as gamma rays.

(1897) The rays emitted from radioactive decay make the surroundings electrically conductive. Thorium is also radioactive like uranium. X-rays and the radiation from decay induces thermoluminescence.

(1899 -1903) Detailed research into radioactivity… Identification of alpha and beta rays… Discovery of nuclear transmutation (thorium –> radium + helium gas)…

Photon energy levels increase into X-ray and Gamma range, but there is a limit to it. At some point radioactivity sets in. There is interaction between energy levels of field-substance (photons) and material-substance (atomic particles). They convert into each other maintaining an equilibrium. There is rearrangement of substance configuration

—S—

SPIN
Particles of spin 1, such as bosons, seem to be like  free flowing energy, rather than energy formed into vortices. Particles of spin 1/2, such as leptons and baryons, seem to be like energy formed into vortices, rather than free flowing energy.

STRANGE PARTICLES
These particles are easy to make but hard to decay.

STRONG FORCE
Strong Force binds protons and neutron in the nucleus of atoms. It is incredibly strong over very short ranges (femtometer 10^-15 meter), but zero beyond that range.

SYMMETRY
Symmetry appears to be a harmonic of Oneness. An example of symmetry is that both weak force and electromagnetism predicted massless particles.

SYMMETRY BREAKING
In symmetry breaking we are looking at an anomaly. An example of symmetry breaking is that W and Z bosons are predicted to be massless but they have mass. This led to the discovery of Higgs mechanism.

—T—

—U—

—V—

—W—

W AND Z BOSON
These are bosons that mediates the weak force. They are of high consistency. Only the W bosons are involved in changing the flavor of particles.

WAVE NATURE
Wave nature describes how mathematics is applied to certain phenomena. Such phenomenon appears when the atoms are loosely bound, as in fluids; or when the atomic substance is diffused in itself with very low consistency. The former is case of ripples in water. The latter is the case with the fact of light.

WAVE-PARTICLE
It is not true that light is both a particle and a wave. “Wave” and “particle” are matter-centric notions. Here we have a field of substance that can be thin or thick in its consistency. The relative motion of substance is inversely proportional to its relative consistency in a vortex-like configuration. The rotating vortex is condensing and becoming more stabilized toward the center. The consistency of substance provides particle-like properties, and the motion of substance provides wave-like properties.

WEAK FORCE
The weak force was considered to involve short distances and massive force-carrying particles. The weak force can change the identities of the particles in the nucleus. Weak Force is responsible for some forms of radioactivity. 

The weak force is 10^5 times weaker than the strong force in femtometer range, and similar in scale to electromagnetic forces. The weak force only interacts with left-handed particles and right-handed antiparticles.

 In Beta decay a neutron is transmuting into a proton. The decay times of radioactive decays caused by the weak force tend to be longer—many minutes, days, years, or even longer. 

WORK (Electrodynamics)
Electrical work is the work done on a charged particle by an electric field. The electrical work per unit of charge, when moving a negligible test charge between two points, is defined as the voltage between those points.

—X—

—Y—

—Z—

ZEEMAN EFFECT
(1897) Application of magnetic field splits quantization more finely (Zeeman effect).

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