Einstein 1938: The Great Mystery Story

Reference: Evolution of Physics

This paper presents Chapter I, section1 from the book THE EVOLUTION OF PHYSICS by A. EINSTEIN and L. INFELD. The contents are from the original publication of this book by Simon and Schuster, New York (1942).

The paragraphs of the original material (in black) are accompanied by brief comments (in color) based on the present understanding.  Feedback on these comments is appreciated.

The heading below is linked to the original materials.

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The Great Mystery Story

In imagination there exists the perfect mystery story. Such a story presents all the essential clues, and compels us to form our own theory of the case. If we follow the plot carefully, we arrive at the complete solution for ourselves just before the author’s disclosure at the end of the book. The solution itself, contrary to those of inferior mysteries, does not disappoint us; moreover, it appears at the very moment we expect it.

Can we liken the reader of such a book to the scientists, who throughout successive generations continue to seek solutions of the mysteries in the book of nature? The comparison is false and will have to be abandoned later, but it has a modicum of justification which may be extended and modified to make it more appropriate to the endeavour of science to solve the mystery of the universe.

This great mystery story is still unsolved. We cannot even be sure that it has a final solution. The reading has already given us much; it has taught us the rudiments of the language of nature; it has enabled us to understand many of the clues, and has been a source of joy and excitement in the oftentimes painful advance of science. But we realize that in spite of all the volumes read and understood we are still far from a complete solution, if, indeed, such a thing exists at all. At every stage we try to find an explanation consistent with the clues already discovered. Tentatively accepted theories have explained many of the facts, but no general solution compatible with all known clues has yet been evolved. Very often a seemingly perfect theory has proved inadequate in the light of further reading. New facts appear, contradicting the theory or unexplained by it. The more we read, the more fully do we appreciate the perfect construction of the book, even though a complete solution seems to recede as we advance.

Consistency of clues is the key to the advance toward a final solution.

In nearly every detective novel since the admirable stories of Conan Doyle there comes a time when the investigator has collected all the facts he needs for at least some phase of his problem. These facts often seem quite strange, incoherent, and wholly unrelated. The great detective, however, realizes that no further investigation is needed at the moment, and that only pure thinking will lead to a correlation of the facts collected. So he plays his violin, or lounges in his armchair enjoying a pipe, when suddenly, by Jove, he has it! Not only does he have an explanation for the clues at hand, but he knows that certain other events must have happened. Since he now knows exactly where to look for it, he may go out, if he likes, to collect further confirmation for his theory.

Collections of facts must be followed by pure thinking to correlate the facts.

The scientist reading the book of nature, if we may be allowed to repeat the trite phrase, must find the solution for himself; for he cannot, as impatient readers of other stories often do, turn to the end of the book. In our case the reader is also the investigator, seeking to explain, at least in part, the relation of events to their rich context. To obtain even a partial solution the scientist must collect the unordered facts available and make them coherent and understandable by creative thought.

A solution requires making the unordered facts coherent and understandable by creative thought.

It is our aim, in the following pages, to describe in broad outline that work of physicists which corresponds to the pure thinking of the investigator. We shall be chiefly concerned with the role of thoughts and ideas in the adventurous search for knowledge of the physical world.

This book is about the role of thoughts and ideas in the search for knowledge of the physical world.

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Final Comment

The universe presents a great mystery. The mystery is made up of anomalies that do not make sense. There is missing data, contradictions and arbitrary considerations. It requires creative thought to resolve such anomalies. That leads to solutions and knowledge.

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March 5, 2019 – 12:59 PM Categories: Science | Post a comment

Einstein 1938: Preface

Reference: Evolution of Physics

This paper presents Preface from the book THE EVOLUTION OF PHYSICS by A. EINSTEIN and L. INFELD. The contents are from the original publication of this book by Simon and Schuster, New York (1942).

The paragraphs of the original material (in black) are accompanied by brief comments (in color) based on the present understanding.  Feedback on these comments is appreciated.

The heading below is linked to the original materials.

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Preface

Before you begin reading, you rightly expect some simple questions to be answered. For what purpose has this book been written? Who is the imaginary reader for whom it is meant?

It is difficult to begin by answering these questions clearly and convincingly. This would be much easier, though quite superfluous, at the end of the book. We find it simpler to say just what this book does not intend to be. We have not written a textbook of physics. Here is no systematic course in elementary physical facts and theories. Our intention was rather to sketch in broad outline the attempts of the human mind to find a connection between the world of ideas and the world of phenomena. We have tried to show the active forces which compel science to invent ideas corresponding to the reality of our world. But our representation had to be simple. Through the maze of facts and concepts we had to choose some highway which seemed to us most characteristic and significant. Facts and theories not reached by this road had to be omitted. We were forced, by our general aim, to make a definite choice of facts and ideas. The importance of a problem should not be judged by the number of pages devoted to it. Some essential lines of thought have been left out, not because they seemed to us unimportant, but because they do not lie along the road we have chosen.

This book sketches in broad outline the attempts of the human mind to find a connection between the world of ideas and the world of phenomena.

Whilst writing the book we had long discussions as to the characteristics of our idealized reader and worried a good deal about him. We had him making up for a complete lack of any concrete knowledge of physics and mathematics by quite a great number of virtues. We found him interested in physical and philosophical ideas and we were forced to admire the patience with which he struggled through the less interesting and more difficult passages. He realized that in order to understand any page he must have read the preceding ones carefully. He knew that a scientific book, even though popular, must not be read in the same way as a novel.

The book is a simple chat between you and us. You may find it boring or interesting, dull or exciting, but our aim will be accomplished if these pages give you some idea of the eternal struggle of the inventive human mind for a fuller understanding of the laws governing physical phenomena.

Essentially, one is looking for harmony, consistency, and continuity in one’s perception of all phenomena that there is.

A. E.
L. I.

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Final Comment

Both ideas and phenomena are part of this universe. They must be one (harmonious, consistent and continuous.)

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March 5, 2019 – 12:29 PM Categories: Science | Post a comment

Motion & Force

With the understanding of substance as matter and radiation, we have a better understanding of particle and void. As we break down the particle of matter it ultimately reduces to radiation.

Per Newton’s Definition II:

DEFINITION II: The quantity of motion is the measure of the same, arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjunctly.

The motion of the whole is the sum of the motions of all the parts; and therefore in a body double in quantity, with equal velocity, the motion is double; with twice the velocity, it is quadruple.

A body of matter moves in space at a uniform velocity. This velocity is shared by all particles that make up that body. The total motion of the body is the sum of the motion of all its particles. The measure of a velocity is consistent only when it is relative to the velocity of a standard reference body.

Velocities are absolute when measured relative to a reference-body at absolute rest.

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The Immovable Space

The background of stars appears to be fixed against which the planets move. Newton, therefore, used this background of stars as the reference-body at rest. Newton, however, was not sure if the stars were at rest; so he postulated the background of space to be immovable.  

The background of stars, however, appears to be fixed because of their remoteness and fixity. We observe bodies of lesser mass revolving around bodies of larger mass. Theoretically, a body of infinite mass shall be fixed relative to all bodies of lesser mass. The absolute space of Newton, then, must consist of infinite mass to be immovable.

Theoretically, infinite mass provides us with a reference-body at absolute rest.

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Inertia

Per Newton’s Definition III:

DEFINITION III: The vis insita, or innate force of matter, is a power of resisting, by which every body, as much as in it lies, endeavours to persevere in its present state, whether it be of rest, or of moving uniformly forward in a right line.

This force is ever proportional to the body whose force it is; and differs nothing from the inactivity of the mass, but in our manner of conceiving it. A body, from the inactivity of matter, is not without difficulty put out of its state of rest or motion. Upon which account, this vis insita, may, by a most significant name, be called vis inertia, or force of inactivity. But a body exerts this force only, when another force, impressed upon it, endeavours to change its condition; and the exercise of this force may be considered both as resistance and impulse; it is resistance, in so far as the body, for maintaining its present state, withstands the force impressed; it is impulse, in so far as the body, by not easily giving way to the impressed force of another, endeavours to change the state of that other. Resistance is usually ascribed to bodies at rest, and impulse to those in motion; but motion and rest, as commonly conceived, are only relatively distinguished ; nor are those bodies always truly at rest, which commonly are taken to be so.


The body, when pushed, changes in velocity; but this change is inversely proportional to the mass. The velocity of a body of large mass may only be changed with difficulty. Newton viewed this as a resistance put up by the body and called it the “force of inertia”. He then postulated that the inertia keeps the body moving at a uniform velocity in a straight line, in the absence of external forces. In other words,

Inertia smooths out the deviations from the uniform velocity of the body.

But deviations from uniform velocity can occur only when the body is being pushed around randomly. This means that mass of the body is smoothing out deviations from uniform velocity.

The body settles upon a certain uniform velocity because of the measure of its mass.

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Force

Per Newton’s Definition IV:

DEFINITION IV: An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order to change its state, either of rest, or of moving uniformly forward in a right line.

This force consists in the action only; and remains no longer in the body, when the action is over. For a body maintains every new state it acquires, by its vis inertia only. Impressed forces are of different origins as from percussion, from pressure, from centripetal force.

The impressed force, or push, will definitely influence the uniform velocity of the body, but that velocity shall be restored back by inertia soon after the push is over. This restoration shall occur as argued in the section above. But, according to Newton, the velocity increased by the momentary push is now maintained by inertia. This could only mean that the momentary push has somehow overcome part of the inertia for the time being.

External force overcomes a body’s inertia when the body undergoes acceleration.

The body, however, returns to its uniform velocity when the force is removed as argued in the previous section. This means that the absolute uniform velocity of a body is determined by its mass. This conclusion is supported by following observations:

  • A body of lesser mass uniformly revolves around a body of greater mass.
  • Radiation with no mass has velocities much greater than bodies with mass.
  • A body of infinite mass shall be completely fixed relative to all other bodies.

When the external force is removed, the body’s inertia is restored, and so is restored its absolute uniform velocity.

This conclusion is supported by Faraday’s principle of Conservation of Force. Both mass and absolute uniform velocity is manifestation of force, and the total force is conserved.

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The Cosmic Geometry

Per Newton’s Definition V:

DEFINITION V: A centripetal force is that by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or any way tend, towards a point as to a centre.

Of this sort is gravity, by which bodies tend to the centre of the earth; magnetism, by which iron tends to the loadstone; and that force, whatever it is, by which the planets are perpetually drawn aside from the rectilinear motions, which otherwise they would pursue, and made to revolve in curvilinear orbits… It is necessary, that the force be of a just quantity, and it belongs to the mathematicians to find the force, that may serve exactly to retain a body in a given orbit, with a given velocity; and vice versa, to determine the curvilinear way, into which a body projected from a given place, with a given velocity, may be made to deviate from its natural rectilinear way, by means of a given force…

A centripetal force requires a fixed location. Therefore, we need to examine the subject of location.

Locations in real space correspond to the points in mathematical space. The space occupied by rigid matter has locations that are approximated by uniformly spaced grid points of a Euclidean space. This space is treated as homogenous.

Only the space occupied by matter comes close to being fixed and homogenous like the mathematical space of Euclidian Geometry.

Such homogenous space was also the idea underlying the postulate of aether. Newton assumes space to be immovable from his observation of the fixed stars. Stars did not move because they were far and had much greater mass. Relative to these stars planets moved because they were closer and had lesser mass. For space to be immovable, it must be fixed everywhere like stars. This requires infinite mass (like stars) filling the void. This is not so.

Space not occupied by matter is not homogenous as observed by fixed and moving locations in the sky.

That is why the idea of aether is rejected. In reality, only those locations in the void are fixed that are infinite in mass. Locations lesser in mass are less fixed.

The fixity of a location in the void depends on the mass at that location.

The positions in the void are not fixed automatically. A moving location, such as a planet of finite mass, does not mean that it is changing position in space. It is the position in space that itself is changing as location relative to more fixed locations. The locations in the void, whether fixed or moving, are the positions that define the space.

The geometry of the real space has mass and motion integral to it.

When the mass at a location in space is less than infinity, there is a certain degree of uncertainty associated with that location. This uncertainty is expressed in terms of its distance from a completely fixed point of infinite mass, as well as its absolute uniform velocity.

Uncertainty of locations shall determine their distances and velocities from completely fixed locations (axes).

By the very nature of this geometry, a less fixed point will revolve around a more fixed point at a distance with velocity determined by its mass. The radiation of void has no mass; therefore, its location is completely uncertain. Its radius of revolution would be infinite. It would appear to move in a straight line at near infinite velocity. That is light.

Light quanta of no mass shall appear to move in straight lines at near infinite velocity by virtue of this geometry.

In general, the points in the void shall be fixed in proportion to their mass or inertia. The location of a body is determined by its center of mass.

The uncertainty of a location is expressed by its curvature and velocity.

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Summary

A location in the void is as fixed as its mass or inertia. Radiation has no mass but it is a substance and, therefore, it has some inertia. Since this inertia is very small compared to the inertia of mass, the velocity of radiation is many degree of magnitude greater than the velocity of bodies with mass.

Newton, essentially, chose his reference-body (the background of fixed stars) as a body of near infinite inertia and near zero velocity. Einstein, on the other hand, chose his reference-boy (light) as a body of near zero inertia and near infinite velocity.

Newton’s approach gives us a near absolute scale of velocity. Einstein’s approach gives us a near absolute scale of inertia.

Finally,

The universe is so arranged that any perturbation will right itself. This law of inertia modifies Newton’s laws of motion.

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February 27, 2019 – 11:26 AM Categories: Physics Book | Post a comment

Particle & Void

Per Newton’s Definition I:

DEFINITION I: The quantity of matter is the measure of the same, arising from its density and bulk conjunctly.

Thus air of a double density, in a double space, is quadruple in quantity; in a triple space, sextuple in quantity. The same thing is to be understood of snow, and fine dust or powders, that are condensed by compression or liquefaction and of all bodies that are by any causes whatever differently condensed. I have no regard in this place to a medium, if any such there is, that freely pervades the interstices between the parts of bodies. It is this quantity that I mean hereafter everywhere under the name of body or mass. And the same is known by the weight of each body; for it is proportional to the weight, as I have found by experiments on pendulums, very accurately made, which shall be shewn hereafter.

The quantity of matter depends on how densely its particles are packed in a volume of space. We think of particle as a body of solid matter that is shaped like a ball. According to Wikipedia:

“A particle is a small localized object to which can be ascribed several physical or chemical properties such as volume, density or mass.”

On atomic scale, the nucleus of an atom is a particle; and the rest of atom is void. On a cosmic scale, a celestial body is a particle, and the empty space is void. The void separates the particles, and exists in the interstices of matter. The void is continuous.

Void is defined as the region, which is void of matter. Other than that, void may consist of substance that is not matter A physical substance would be anything that is felt physically. A substance is characterized by force.

The essential characteristic of substance is force. When there is force, there is also substance.

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The Atomic Particle & Void

In his paper on Electrical Conduction & Nature of Matter Faraday explains that the property of electrical conductivity requires that atoms be in contact with each other. Therefore, the atomic void that separates the material nuclei must contain the characteristic of force. This indicates the presence of substance in the atomic void. There is no empty space in the atom.

In gases the atoms touch each other just as truly as in solids. In this respect the atoms of water touch each other whether that substance be in the form of ice, water or steam; no mere intervening space is present. Doubtless the centres of force vary in their distance one from another, but that which is truly the matter of one atom touches the matter of its neighbours.

To Faraday, the nuclei were the centers of the force that filled the void of the atom.

Hence matter will be continuous throughout, and in considering a mass of it we have not to suppose a distinction between its atoms and any intervening space. The powers around the centres give these centres the properties of atoms of matter; and these powers again, when many centres by their conjoint forces are grouped into a mass, give to every part of that mass the properties of matter. In such a view all the contradiction resulting from the consideration of electric insulation and conduction disappears.

Matter is substance concentrated in the nucleus, which then spreads out as the void. There is no such thing as empty space.

According to Faraday, the atomic void represents a substance of electromagnetic nature.

An atom consists of a force field that is converging toward the center while increasing in frequency. It gets extremely compacted at the center where it appear as mass of the nucleus. This electromagnetic force is a substance, and it needs to be recognized as such.

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The Cosmic Particle & Void

Substance in the cosmic void takes the form of radiation. In his paper on Thoughts on Ray Vibrations, Faraday proposes that the vibrations, by which radiant phenomena is recognized, may simply occur in the lines of force that fill the void.

The view which I am so bold to put forth considers, therefore, radiation as a kind of species of vibration in the lines of force which are known to connect particles and also masses of matter together. It endeavors to dismiss the aether, but not the vibration. The kind of vibration which, I believe, can alone account for the wonderful, varied, and beautiful phaenomena of polarization, is not the same as that which occurs on the surface of disturbed water, or the waves of sound in gases or liquids, for the vibrations in these cases are direct, or to and from the centre of action, whereas the former are lateral. It seems to me, that the resultant of two or more lines of force is in an apt condition for that action which may be considered as equivalent to a lateral vibration; whereas a uniform medium, like the aether, does not appear apt, or more apt than air or water.

This is a bold view put forth by Faraday. It dismisses aether of 19th century physicist but not vibration. These vibrations are direct or to and fro from the centers of action and not lateral like those on the surface of disturbed water, or the waves of sound in gases or liquids. The vibrations visualized by Faraday affected the very substance of space as they propagated through it. 

According to Faraday, the cosmic void represents substance of radiative nature.

Again, radiation is a substance, and it needs to be recognized as such.

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The Substance of Particle and Void

In 1675, Newton first introduced his opinions regarding aether as follows:

A most subtle spirit which pervades all bodies by the force and action of which spirit the particles of bodies mutually attract one another, at near distances, and cohere, if contiguous;  and electric bodies operate at greater distances, as well repelling as attracting the neighbouring corpuscles; and light is emitted, reflected, refracted, inflected and heats bodies; and all sensation is excited, and the members of animal bodies move at the command of the will, namely, by the vibrations of this spirit, mutually propagated along the solid filaments of the nerves, from the outward organs of sense to the brain, and from the brain into the muscles.

Newton’s idea of aether and immovable space came about as a projection from the background of fixed stars, which he saw as relatively at rest,

Newton saw space to be filled with aetherial substance that was uniform and immovable.

The stars, however, appear to be fixed because of their immense distance and very large inertia. For aether to be immovable it must have infinite inertia. Faraday rejected the idea of aether and proposed radiation, defined by lines of force, to be the substance of space.

Faraday saw space to be filled with radiation that was varied and highly movable.

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Summary

Faraday’s observations are amply proven by later discoveries. There is substance existing in the void in the form of electromagnetic force and radiation. Thus there is division of substance into matter and radiation.

There is no complete void.

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February 26, 2019 – 11:38 PM Categories: Physics Book | Post a comment

Exercise: Walking Meditation #1

This walking meditation extroverts the mind while allowing stresses in the body to unwind. You may practice this meditation when you are having trouble meditating in a sitting position. Make sure you walk in a pleasant and safe place.

Meditation Exercise:

Walking Meditation on Body

Purpose:

To extrovert the mind while letting the body unwind.

Pre-requisites:

Study Walking Meditation.

Instructions:

Find a safe and pleasant environment, such as, a farm, park or a garden where you may spend half an hour without being disturbed. Start walking leisurely. 

Become aware of your natural breathing. Gradually become aware of your body from head to toe. Notice how the various parts of the body are moving. Notice how other parts of the body are being carried along. Observe and experience the body walking, stopping, turning, bending, stretching, etc. Get how the clothes feel on the body.

Start feeling the sensations present in the various parts of the body. Experience them fully one by one. Let any stresses unwind as they may. Do the same with any aches and pains present. Do not force anything. Let it all happen naturally. You let the stresses in the body unwind on their own, so the body starts to become increasingly relaxed.

All this while, you use your breathing as the stabilizing factor. In other words, whenever your attention strays you bring it back to your breathing and start experiencing the body again. Perceive the sensations, aches and pains in the body, just as they are, without interfering.

Continue this exercise for at least 20 minute. Let the stresses unwind as much as possible.

You may repeat this exercise as often as you wish.

End of Exercise:

When attention is extroverted and the body feels lighter, this exercise may be ended.

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February 23, 2019 – 7:04 AM Categories: Meditation | Post a comment