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Reference: Spacetime 5: A New Model of Atom

The section Outline of Schrodinger’s Theory from Eddington’s book, “The Nature of the Physical World,” provides a wonderful description of Schrodinger’s model that may be compared to the Disturbance theory.

According to Schrödinger there is a sub-aether, which is rippling at a very high frequency. These ripples converge and coalesce to generate disturbed areas in space that act as discrete particles, such as, electrons.

This is very much in line with the Disturbance theory, except that Schrödinger’s sub-aether is identified as space. The ripples in space result in a frequency spectrum that spans from undisturbed space of zero frequency at the lower end to extremely high frequencies at the upper end that collapse into mass. The very high frequency ripples of Schrödinger’s model are identified as the gamma ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

In Schrödinger’s model the velocity of ripples varies with wavelength or period. Those of shorter period travel faster. The speed may also be modified by local conditions, which may be compared to field of force.

In Disturbance theory, the speed of propagation is meaningless in subatomic regions where the constitution of space and time itself is changing because of relativistic effects, though space/time maintains a constant ratio ‘c’. The monitoring variable, therefore, is not speed but frequency.

The stormy regions of Schrödinger’s model are high frequency regions that are viewed as particles. In the Disturbance model they are viewed as 3-D “whirlpools” existing in a low frequency background. The high frequency gradients defining them influence the surrounding low frequency region.

The Schrödinger’s Equation is based on the idea of conservation of energy. The terms of the Schrödinger equation can be interpreted as total energy of the system, equal to the system kinetic energy plus the system potential energy. This equation is solved for the motion of sub-atomic particles. Frequency is recognized as the energy of the particle, and it provides the relationship between period and energy per the h rule. The motion of the Schrödinger’s particle is represented by the group-velocity and not the wave-velocity.

In Disturbance theory, the 3-D whirlpools are not viewed as particles. Instead they are made up of spherical shells. Frequency is associated with the excitation energy of these shells. Each cycle of this frequency has an energy equal to the Planck’s constant h. The excitation energy for these shells is represented by the frequency of light absorbed or emitted, and not by the high frequency that make up the shells.

The Schrödinger’s model defines the point location of the subatomic particle by a probability distribution function. This is not necessary for the shell represention of the model in Disturbance theory. The shells are made up of high frequency waves. They do not constitute a point particle. The only particle is the nucleus of the atom where extremely high frequency waves collapse as mass.

The Schrödinger’s equation was successfully solved for the emission of light from a hydrogen atom. The nucleus was represented by a “field of force” (potential energy) that influenced the motion of the electron (kinetic energy). The solution was a discrete set of frequencies that described the possible states of the electron. It agreed with Bohr’s quantized energy levels. It even provided the energy levels observed, which could not be predicted from the Bohr’s model. It was a considerable advance to have determined these energies by a wave-theory instead of by an inexplicable mathematical rule.

Eddington says, “It would be difficult to think of the electron as having two energies (i.e. being in two Bohr orbits) simultaneously; but there is nothing to prevent waves of two different frequencies being simultaneously present in the sub-aether. Thus the wave-theory allows us easily to picture a condition which the classical theory could only describe in paradoxical terms.” Light emitted from an atom is the difference between two energy levels of the electron. This is viewed in Schrödinger’s theory as the “beat” produced by two waves that are close to each other in frequency as in heterodyning.

This places the particle model of electron in doubt. This problem is not there in the Disturbance theory where light emission may be explained as “beats” produced by two adjacent oscillating shells.

Schrödinger assumes a wave function ψ in sub-aether as an elementary indefinable of the wave-theory. The probability that the particle or electron is within a given region is interpreted as being proportional to ψ² in that region.

In Disturbance theory, the atomic structure consists of shells whose frequencies are in the gamma range. These frequencies increase as one moves closer to the center of the atom. These “shells” oscillate when excited. Localization occurs only in terms of the shell that is oscillating. Two closely resonating shells have “beats”that appear as light absorbed or emitted.

An oscillating shell may represent an electron inside the atom. As shells oscillate in succession, the electron may appear to move. The concept of “probability” in Schrödinger’s model may thus be given a meaning through Disturbance theory.

The “shells” increase in frequency as they get closer to the center until they “collapse” to form the nucleus. In a nucleus, these shells are so close together that they approach the classical definition of a particle. 

The picture of electron as a classical particle is much less proper compared to the nucleus. This lack of propriety is expressed indirectly by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Schrödinger’s sub-aether requires six-dimensions to describe two electrons within an atom, thus the sub-aether does not exist in physical space. There is no such problem with the model per Disturbance theory, which does not require additional dimensions to describe two electrons. 

Summary

The sub-aether of Schrödinger is an arbitray concept that is not consistent with real space. It becomes complex very rapidly as more electrons are considered. There is no sub-aether. There is simply the physical space. Disturbances in this space are adequately described  by the broad electromagnetic spectrum. Schrödinger’s very high frequencies of sub-aether are better described by the  gamma range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

In reality, there is no electron, as a particle, possible within the atom that can assume two different energies simultaneously. Instead of particles there are cascading spherical shells in the atom with frequencies in the gamma range. These frequencies increase toward the center of atom. Instead of electrons there are oscillating shells. When oscillating, some adjacent shells produce lower frequency “beats”, which appear as light absorbed or emitted by the atom.

There are no electrons as particles in atom. There are only high frequency shells that respond to excitation.

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Reference: Spacetime 5: A New Model of Atom

Light (electromagnetic radiation) is a disturbance in space. Light spreads uniformly in space in all directions as it moves away from its source. The intensity of light decreases with distance, but the frequency remains the same. Frequency is the only discrete aspect of light. Each cycle of light represents an energy equal to the Planck’s constant ‘h’.

In 1905, Einstein wrote in his paper “On a heuristic point of view concerning production and transformation of light”:

“It seems to me that the observations associated with blackbody radiation, fluorescence, the production of cathode ray by ultraviolet light, and other related phenomena connected with the emission and transformation of light are more readily understood if one assumes that the energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space. In accordance with the assumption to be considered here, the energy of light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously distributed over an increasing space but consists of a finite number of energy quanta which are localized at points in space, which move without dividing, and which can only be produced and absorbed as complete units.”

Why did Einstein assume light to be discontinuously distributed in space even when this idea was contradictory to the known wave nature of light?

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The key reason was that Einstein wanted to explain how light of low intensity could still eject electrons instantaneously when shined over some metals. The energy of the electron followed the equation,

V₀.e       =       hf  –  φ₀

Where 

V₀.e represents maximum kinetic energy of electron

hf represents energy supplied by the photon of light

φ₀ represents energy consumed in ejecting an electron

This relationship was accurately verified by Robert Millikan in 1914 with great precision.

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Einstein formulated the idea of light quantum (photon) based on the idea of ‘energy quantum’ suggested by Max Planck five years earlier to explain the blackbody radiation.

When heated, a blackbody radiated light at all frequencies. But the frequency distribution of that radiation could not be explained using the principles of classical physics. Max Planck used the “mathematical idea” of energy quantum to resolve the difficulty.

‘hf’ was the energy quantum suggested by Max Planck that was required to activate an “atomic oscillator” of frequency ‘f’, which then radiated light at that frequency.

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In photoelectric effect, frequency was involved in ejecting the electron and not the intensity of light. Electron could not be ejected by light below a threshold frequency. Energy of the ejected electron then increased only with increasing frequency. An increasing intensity of light did not eject electrons below the threshold frequency. Above that frequency, the increasing intensity simply increased the number of electrons ejected.

At the threshold frequency f₀, light supplied the energy hf₀ to the atomic oscillator to release the electron. This energy had to be supplied as a bundle to activate the oscillator. So, the energy supplied by light had to be bundled in space.

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Robert Millikan, who didn’t agree with Einstein’s particle theory of light, analyzed the absorption of light in photoelectric emission (see Section 9, Theories of Photo Emission, of Millikan’s paper). He noted that his experiments showed exact proportionality between the field strength and the force acting on the electron, which contradicted any kind of discontinuous structure in space. This leaves the only alternative that the energy supplied by light must bundle up within the metal.

Frequency triggers resonance in an oscillator of the atom. The initial amplitude of incident light determines how many of those resonances build up and discharge an electron. The amplitude has decreased as the wave front has spread. But it builds up very quickly in a resonating oscillator. The electron discharges at a certain amplitude of oscillator. Energy imparted to an oscillator per cycle of incident light is ‘h’. The more oscillators are exposed to light, the more energy per cycle is imparted. The oscillator discharges at energy ‘hf’.

If we assume that all oscillators in an area can pool their energy to one central oscillator, and that there is one oscillator per atom, then ‘f’ atoms shall be pooling their energy to eject an electron instantly.

With this assumption we can calculate the amount of potassium required to instantly generate a photo electron. For potassium the threshold frequency is 5.537 x 10¹⁴ Hertz. One mole of potassium is 39 gram, which consists of 6.022 x 10²³ atoms. 5.537 x 10¹⁴ atoms of potassium would weigh 3.59 x 10^-8 gram. This is an extremely small amount.

Thus, when a very weak star light of threshold frequency falls on a very small area on film of potassium, it can easily eject electrons. We may thus assume that photons are generated upon the interaction of light with the photoelectric material, instead of assuming that photon must already exist in space.

The metallic surface must act as an energy lens to the light shining upon it. The energy carried by the wave front of light is then concentrated at the atomic oscillators within the surface as a photon.

We do not really need to postulate a particle theory of light to explain the photoelectric effect. We may simply postulate that the photon is created as part of the energy interaction.

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This undated file photo shows famed physicist Albert Einstein.

Reference: Spacetime 1: Speed and Frequency

We note that the units of space and time are fixed only for matter and not for light. Therefore, the concept of speed does not really apply to light.

Michelson–Morley experiment actually determines the speed of earth relative to light.

The Dutch astronomer De Sitter showed that the “speed of light” does not depend on the speed of the source of light. In this case the speed of the source of light is determined relative to earth. Light seems to serve as the ultimate reference point for speed of stars.

All stars and planet are traveling at the “speed of light” relative to light.

Light seems to have sort of an independent and absolute existence. All objects seems to behave the same way relative to it. The universal constant of “speed of light” needs to be reinterpreted as follows.

The speed of all mass objects relative to light is the constant ‘c’.

This gives us a new perspective on the speed of objects relative to each other.

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We can no longer dream of objects moving at the speed of light, because they already are doing that. That dream had actually to do with our desire to travel to distant corners of this universe that are light years away.

Can a rocket travel at the “speed of light” relative to earth? This question suddenly acquires very different implications. Speed ‘c’ comes about in reference to light that has zero inertia.

What limiting speed comes about when an object with considerable inertia is used for reference?

The concept of inertia is associated with the resistance that mass puts up to being moved or disturbed. Gravity seems to be a reaction to disturbance that has already taken place.

All mass with inertia seems to be fighting to come back together as a single entity.

Einstein’s General Relativity models mass, momentum, pressure and stress as curvatures within a space measured by meter rods.

This may put a limit to the speed that two mass objects may attain relative to each other.

An understanding of that limit would require a better understanding of inertia, and how it relates to curvature of space.

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