Category Archives: Physics Book

The Physics Book.

Physics, Objectivity and Subjectivity

September 28, 2019 – 10:38 AM

As explained in the preface, the very fact that the fundamental theories of physics cannot be reconciled indicates that there are basic assumptions underlying physics that are inconsistent with reality.

Physics starts with the concepts of matter and void. These two concepts are then expanded upon throughout the development of physics. Therefore, our search for assumptions should start with how matter and void have been conceived and expanded upon.

The starting concept in classical physics is matter as the basic substance, and the void as the absence of substance. All other concepts are then derived from the idea of matter as substance. For example, mass is the “density” of matter, kinetic energy is the “motion” of matter; potential energy is the “tension” in matter; momentum is the “impact” of matter.

Classical physics deals with matter up till the concept of atom. Beyond atom we encounter the constituents of atom and their characteristics.  These are dealt by quantum physics. A sharp break in reality occurs at this transition from classical to quantum physics because the characteristics of matter do not seem to continue beyond atom. Beyond matter, atom and quantum particles, there is electromagnetic radiation and, of course, void.

We need to investigate the concept of matter as a substance beyond the atom, where classical physics is replaced by quantum physics.

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Objectivity

Physics takes pride in being objective. The word objective is derived from object that has the sense of “something perceived”. Objectivity requires consistency among what is observed and not just agreement on what is postulated to explain those observations.

Objective reality is not only made tangible through physical perceptions of sight, touch, hearing, taste and smell, but it is also made logical by the mental perceptions of continuity, consistency, and harmony. The objective reality is that which has been tested and verified and cannot be argued with. It is the same for all people because all known inconsistencies have been resolved.

When we say that physics is objective, we mean that there is a natural continuity, consistency, and harmony among all its observations, interpretations and conclusions.

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Subjectivity

Physics tries to resolve subjectivity. The word subjective is derived from subject that has the sense of “open to inspection”. It is characterized by inconsistencies that still need to be resolved. As inconsistencies are resolved the subjective reality becomes increasingly objective.

Subjectivity exists when there is difficulty in obtaining direct observations, so gaps are filled with educated guesses and, sometimes, with outright assumptions. Such guesses and assumption must always be open to inspection. Trouble comes when things that are subjective are closed to inspection, mainly by agreement among physicists.

The route from subjectivity to objectivity in physics is a closer inspection of anomalies (discontinuity, inconsistency, and disharmony) concerning matter and void, and resolving them.

To find the assumptions that are hidden behind the mathematical symbolism for matter and void, we need to inspect the matter-void interface first.

The survey of Physics in Part I shows that we have a gradient of substance from matter to void.

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The Local Frames of Reference

September 25, 2019 – 5:56 PM

In contrast to the Universal Frame of Reference there are local frames of reference. A local frame of reference is like a viewpoint attached to a body within the universe as compared to the viewpoint of the whole universe.

The local frames of reference may be outlined as:

• Inertial frame of reference
• Inertial frame of reference (Newtonian)
• Inertial frame of reference (Relativistic)
• Non-inertial frame of reference

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Inertial Frame of Reference

An inertial frame of reference is defined as one in which all laws of physics take on their simplest form. In this frame of reference, a body does not accelerate unless force is applied to it. In the absence of force, the body either stays at rest or moves at a constant speed in a straight line. Conceptually, the physics of a system in an inertial frame have no causes external to the system.

The inertial frame of reference describes time and space as homogeneous, isotropic, and independent of each other. In other words, it assumes space to be filled with matter that is homogeneous and isotropic throughout. (see Matter, Void and Space). It does not consider any variations in its density. The inertial frame of reference applies to the material domain only from the perspective of MATERIAL-VOID duality. It is not universal because it does not include the motion associated with electromagnetic radiation and gravitational force.

Conceptually, a body will move freely at a constant speed relative to another body only when there is a density differential (see The Universal Frame of Reference). But such differential is so small in the material domain that it is ignored. Therefore, all inertial frames are in a state of constant, rectilinear motion with respect to one another irrespective of density. Measurements in one inertial frame can be converted to measurements in another by a simple transformation (the Galilean transformation in Newtonian physics and the Lorentz transformation in special relativity).

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Inertial Frame of Reference (Newtonian)

Newton viewed the first law as valid in any reference frame that is in uniform motion relative to the fixed stars; that is, neither rotating nor accelerating relative to the stars.

Hence, with respect to an inertial frame, an object or body accelerates only when a physical force is applied, and (following Newton’s first law of motion), in the absence of a net force, a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will continue to move uniformly—that is, in a straight line and at constant speed. Newtonian inertial frames transform among each other according to the Galilean transformation.

The Newtonian frame of reference was the original inertial frame of reference that used Earth as its reference point for the motion of material objects on Earth; and Sun as its reference point for the motion of planets in the solar system. It was local because the basis of reference were local bodies.

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Inertial Frame of Reference (Relativistic)

The principle of special relativity generalizes the notion of inertial frame to include all physical laws, not simply Newton’s first law. It, like Newtonian mechanics, postulates the equivalence of all inertial reference frames. However, because special relativity postulates that the speed of light in free space is invariant, the transformation between inertial frames is the Lorentz transformation, not the Galilean transformation which is used in Newtonian mechanics.

The special theory of relativity measures the material velocities from the basis of the velocity of light. The large density differential between matter and light makes the material velocities closer to being absolute as in the universal frame of reference. This gives more accurate results as in the calculation of the precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit.

The invariance of the speed of light leads to counter-intuitive phenomena, such as time dilation and length contraction, and the relativity of simultaneity. But this is similar to the shrinking of period and wavelength as frequency increases in the electromagnetic spectrum. This indicates increasing density. This effect continues in the material domain. When external force is applied to matter its density increases by an infinitesimal amount (see The Electromagnetic Spectrum).

The Lorentz transformation reduces to the Galilean transformation as the speed of light approaches infinity. But those Galilean transformation require velocities to be measured relative to the stars as in the Universal Frame of Reference. Error comes about when velocities are measured relative to local bodies.

The Relativistic frame of reference uses a universal basis, but it still limits itself to the material domain. It is local in that sense.

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Non-Inertial Frame of Reference

In contrast to the inertial frame, a non-inertial frame of reference is one in which fictitious forces must be invoked to explain observations. In other words, when there are curved paths, or rotation, in the inertial reference frame and no forces are visible, then fictitious forces of inertia are assumed.

These fictitious forces come about because of the frame of reference itself is accelerating. This makes the frame of reference non-inertial. For example, Coriolis effect occurs due to Earth’s rotation. This is accounted for by a fictitious force. Another example of such a fictitious force is the centrifugal force associated with rotating reference frames (see video). All of these forces including gravity disappear in a truly inertial reference frame, which is one of free-fall.

Both inertial and non-inertial frames are local because they are limited to the material domain. The Newtonian version uses a body within the universe from which to observe the motion of other bodies. The Relativistic version, however, uses a near universal basis that allows more accuracy but for the material domain only (see The Universal Frame of Reference).

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The Spectrum of Substance (old-2)

September 23, 2019 – 9:43 AM

Please see The Spectrum of Substance

When we consider the scale of density of substance, we usually consider matter on a macroscopic scale. Matter is an aggregate of atoms separated by space. The space between atoms is filled by the continuum of electrons, the electromagnetic spectrum and gravitational force. The density of matter depends on the concentration of atoms in space. Beyond space we have the void. Earlier, we considered this spectrum of substance as

MATTER – SPACE – VOID

Matter is made up of particles of substance, but space is a continuum of substance. There are layers of particle and continua of different concentrations and densities. These layers may be listed broadly as follows.

MATERIAL PARTICLES
NUCLEAR “PARTICLES”
ELECTRONS
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
VOID

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Material Particles

We are very familiar with material particles. They have the property of center of mass, which allows them to be treated as point particles in classical mechanics. They collide with each other and have discrete energy of impact. Therefore, they are energy particles as well.

The material particles are a collection of smaller particles called atoms. Atoms are separated by space, which is filled with the continua of electrons, electromagnetic radiation and gravitational force. The concentration of atoms within a volume determines material density.

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Nuclear “particles”

At close quarters the nuclear “particles” (neutrons and protons) appear to form a continuum of very high density. They may still be treated as point particles. The energy of their nuclear interactions also appears to be discrete. Therefore, they are “particles” in terms of energy also.

In space, however, they form a highly dense continuum that exists within the continuum of electrons. We assume neutrons and protons to be spherical, and the mass to be distributed evenly throughout that spherical volume. The density of this nuclear region is higher than the average density of matter because there is no space mixed within it to dilute it.

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Electrons and Charge

The electronic region surrounds the nuclear region, and it is in equilibrium with it. The largest drop in mass density occurs from the nuclear to electronic region. This is also the interface where the phenomenon of charge appears as a significant force.

The electrons are 1840 times less dense than the nucleus. They do not have a center of mass. Therefore, they form a continuum in space. But there is a gradient of density within the electronic region along the radius of the atom. This gradient appears as discrete “energy levels” within the atom, because of the interactions occurring with photons.

It is possible that the phenomenon of charge is related directly to the sharp gradient in mass density between the electronic and nuclear regions. It seems that force is produced by this density gradient, which is different from electron-photon interactions forming energy levels.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the continuum surrounding the continuum of electrons. It is in equilibrium with the electronic region as observed in the black body radiation. The density continues to decrease on a gradient from the electronic region through the electromagnetic spectrum. Here density seems to be represented by frequency.

The quantum “particles” appear throughout the nuclear region down to the bottom of electromagnetic spectrum. These are the unique energies of interactions scattered throughout this part of substance spectrum. Each quantum is part of a continuum of certain density. There is a continuous gradient of mass density from the nuclear region down to the bottom of electromagnetic spectrum.

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Gravitational Force

From the bottom of electromagnetic spectrum down to the void is the region of extremely low frequency and extremely large wavelengths. In this region the consistency of substance is so rarefied that it appears as pure force. This is the region of gravitational force, or gravity.

Gravity is the lowest common denominator of the spectrum of substance. This explains why gravity acts on everything in this universe. This also explains why no “gravitons” have been detected because we may be dealing with just one graviton of the size of the universe.

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Void

Below gravitational force on the spectrum is the void of zero consistency. Void is the absence of substance. There is nothing to be sensed. Void is no-awareness.

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The Universal Frame of Reference

September 22, 2019 – 10:57 AM

A frame of reference means a point of view. In physics, it forms the basis of motion. The frame itself is assumed to be at rest. Relative to the frame a body can be at rest, move at a constant velocity, or have acceleration. This video provides an excellent demonstration of frame of reference.

Since we live on Earth, we use Earth as our frame of reference. This local frame is adequate for all motion observed on the surface of Earth. It, however, makes the motion of planets very complex. When we use Sun as our frame of reference, the motion of the planets becomes simple and consistent. We can now see that the Earth itself is moving as a planet around the sun. When we use the center of galaxy as our frame of reference, we find that the Sun is also moving along with the solar system.

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Local and universal

When motion is viewed through another motion, such as, viewing the moving planets from a moving earth, our frame of reference is local. But when we view motion as an intrinsic property existing universally like the property of mass, our frame of reference is universal.

From Earth to Sun to the galaxy, the frame of reference is becoming broader but it is still local. The broader is the frame of reference, the more consistent is the relationship among observed motion. From this point of view, the broadest frame of reference shall provide complete consistency among all motion. But the broadest frame of reference is not from some center within the universe.

The universal frame of reference is viewing motion as an intrinsic property existing universally.

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Universal Frame and Density

In Newton’s time the fixed stars were invoked as a reference frame, which was assumed to be at absolute rest. This comes closest to visualizing in a universal frame of reference.

The universe provides the broadest frame of reference to all things within it. Beyond the universe there is simply void. Within this universe matter has the highest density and light has none. (see Matter, Void and Space).

Matter itself has a gradient of density. For example, the core of the nucleus of an atom may have the highest density. The same could be reasoned for the core of a neutron star, or a black hole. At the other end of the spectrum, light itself may have a gradient of density even when its negligible. The density of light is related to its frequency. This density goes to zero as frequency goes to zero. Light of zero frequency is the void. So, we may relate zero density with the void. So there is a scale of density from void to matter. Substance is defined by the presence of density.

In the universal frame of reference, substance is defined by a scale of density from zero of void to infinity of black hole.

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Universal Frame and Motion

Infinite density appears to be related to absolute rest as in the case of Newton’s fixed stars. Matter has a gradient of density at the upper end of the scale, where we have the slowest motion. Light has a gradient of density at the lower end of the scale, where we have the fastest motion. This shows that there is an inverse relationship between density and motion. This is visualized in the following sketch.

The higher is the density, the lower is the intrinsic motion.

Light has very high speed, but it is not infinite. This means that light must have density even if infinitesimal. Einstein’s assertion that light has no mass may be interpreted as follows:

  1. The density of light is insignificant and negligible compared to the density of matter, or
  2. Light does not have the property of “center of mass”. 

Thus, infinite speed shall relate to void that has zero density, and absolute rest may relate to black hole, if it has infinite density.

In the universal frame of reference, there is an inverse scale of motion (speed) from infinity of void to zero of black hole

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Time

Matter has very high density, and it endures at any location for a long time. That is why its intrinsic motion is very low. The inverse is true for light that has negligible density, no endurance and high intrinsic motion. This provides us with a new understanding of time as “duration of substance.”

Time is the duration of substance. It is directly proportional to density, and inversely proportional to intrinsic motion.

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The Dimensions

We may sum up the basic concepts of physics as follows:

  1. The starting concept is SUBSTANCE with the dimension of DENSITY.
  2. SPACE is defined by the extents of substance
  3. TIME is defined by the duration of substance

The Universal Frame of reference is based on the concept of substance and the dimensions of density, space and time as defined above. Density, time (duration) and motion are interchangeable as dimensions.

Each location has three dimensions of space and a fourth dimension of density, time (duration) or intrinsic motion.

Locations of infinite density shall have infinite duration and they shall act as points of absolute rest. They shall act as reference points for surrounding motion. That is why we find black holes at the center of galaxies; and heavy nucleus at the center of atom.

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Mass, Energy and Time

September 15, 2019 – 6:08 PM

Substance has the characteristic of mass that is directly related to its substantiality. In fact, the substantiality may be expressed in terms of the density of mass. The mass density may be plotted on a continuous scale meaning that it is continuous in value. It is not an integer multiple of some ultimate amount that is indivisible.

Mass is the measure of substantiality of substance.

The intrinsic motion of substance is expressed as its energy. The agitation of gas molecules is an example of intrinsic motion. Another example is the Brownian motion. The intrinsic motion appears naturally between two substances of different mass densities. An example is the extremely rapid motion of electrons around the nucleus of an atom. Another example is the speed of light relative to earth. These motions are intrinsic. There are no external force generating such motion. 

Energy is the measure of intrinsic motion of substance.

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Substantiality and Motion

Matter is highly substantial, and it endures at any location for a long time. Its intrinsic motion, therefore, is very small. Light, on the other hand has little substantiality, and it barely endures at any location. Its intrinsic motion, therefore, is very high. This sums up to the following observation.

The higher is the substantiality (mass density) of substance, the lower is its intrinsic motion (energy).

In other words, higher is its intrinsic motion, lower is the substantiality of substance. This means that near infinite speed of light must be accompanied by infinitesimal substantiality. Therefore, light must have insignificant but finite mass density.

Einstein’s assertion that light has no mass may be interpreted as follows:

  1. The mass density of light is insignificant and negligible compared to the mass density of matter, or
  2. Light does not have the property of “center of mass”. 

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Mass and energy

Per the discussion above, intrinsic motion is inverse of mass density. In other words, energy is inversely related to mass density. This seems to contradict Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2, which seems to relate energy directly to mass.

This contradiction, however, resolves when we look at this equation in terms of unit conversion. Using this equation, we can express mass in energy units, and energy in mass units. It shows that infinitesimal amount of mass density is equivalent to a significant amount of energy because of the large multiplier c2.

Therefore, when mass expands into energy, the amount of that energy is significantly large, and when energy condenses into mass, the amount of that mass is insignificantly small.

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Time

The discussion above also provides us with a new understanding of time as the “duration of substance.” The higher is the mass density of substance, the longer is the time for which it endures at any location, and the lower is its intrinsic motion. Therefore,

Time is directly proportional to mass density, and inversely proportional to intrinsic motion.

Time has the intrinsic nature of duration that depends on how dense substance is at any location. The fourth dimension at any location, therefore, is mass density.

Each location has three dimensions of space and a fourth dimension of mass density (duration).

Locations of infinite mass density shall have infinite duration and they shall act as points of absolute rest. Thus, points of infinite density shall act as reference points for surrounding motion. That is why we find black holes at the center of galaxies.

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