Reference: Postulate Mechanics (PM)
The concept of particle has evolved over time from a matter particle to an atom to subatomic particles, quanta, etc. A matter particle is generally visualized as a tiny hard ball, but this is not the case with subatomic particles. But all particles have a certain size in space, and duration in time. They are treated as discrete, localized and countable.
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Classical idea
Originally, a particle was understood to be a small part of matter that obviously had a fixed boundary and a center of mass. Example of this would be a dust particle, or a particle of sand. In Chemistry, a particle was related to the smallest part of substance that took part in chemical reactions. Ultimately, a particle of matter was reduced to the idea of an atom or a molecule. Its boundaries were considered to be well defined and fixed, and it had a center of mass.
Mechanically, a particle is idealized as a hard, spherical billiard ball that has a point-like center of mass, and a definite position and velocity at each instant. It follows continuous trajectories determined by forces, as in Newtonian mechanics and special relativity.
The classical feature of a particle is a point-like “center of mass” at which all its mass is balanced. The matter particle may be treated mechanically, as if all its mass is concentrated at its center of mass.
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The Atom
The smallest particle of matter is called atom, which is so small that it is invisible to the eye. It was visualized as spherical in shape and volume, with mass distributed inside it homogeneously. And, so it had a center of mass.
It was a big surprise when, at the end of 19th century, it was discovered that mass was not homogeneous inside the atom. Experiments revealed the atom had an extremely small and dense nucleus at its center that was positively charged. The nucleus was surrounded by much less dense cloud of negatively charged electrons. There was a sharp decline in mass from nucleus to the surrounding electronic layer; but the mass within the atom generally decreased as the distance from the center increased. But this internal structure was such that the atom could still be treated as a matter particle with a center of mass.
Most dense were the neutrons that occupied the center of the nucleus, while, at the surface of the nucleus, were slightly less dense protons. Similarly, the most dense electron layer was closest to the nucleus at the center, and the least dense electron layer was at the periphery of the atom. Charge (tension) existed at the interface between nucleus and electronic layer, where the sharp decline in mass occurred.
Neutrons, protons and electrons are detected as particles only during atomic interactions. Some models assume that these subatomic particles already exist as point particles within the atom, and so atoms mostly consist of space; but this is an arbitrary assumption not supported by logic. Only Faraday’s theory explains logically the decreasing mass from the center of the atom to its periphery, along with the continuity of the substance throughout.
It is a misconception that subatomic particles exist as point-particles within the atom. The subatomic particles are generated during atomic processes.
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Subatomic Particles
Subatomic particles are much smaller in mass than an atom. They are detected in cosmic rays and during atomic processes.
As described above, atoms have an internal structure in which mass decreases with increase in distance from the center. The subatomic particles generated during atomic interactions have a variety of different masses; but all such masses are smaller than the mass of an atom. The subatomic particles may also be visualized as spheres, but, those with lighter mass lose their point-like center of mass.
Protons and neutrons have internal structure of smaller quarks, while electrons are elementary particles as they do not contain internal structures. They are the fundamental, indivisible building blocks of the universe. The Standard Model lists 17 different elementary particles.
These elementary particles are distinguished by their mass. The lesser is the mass, the higher is their intrinsic motion. We may place these elementary particles on a Spectrum of Substance according to their mass.
The concept of elementary particles is based on “action at a distance” ideology, that postulates void as their background. Faraday’s lines of force, however, support the idea that a particle is a dense region, which is continuous with its thin background. There is no absolute emptiness as void.
It is a misconception that the background of particles is a void. The particles actually maintain continuity among them by having continuity with their background.
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Particle and Wave
Mass thins out within the atom with increasing distance from the center because it is filling a larger volume. Some universal constant is in play here. There is an intrinsic motion of substance that has a wavelength and a frequency. The increased volume shows up in the increased “wavelength” of the substance. The decreased mass shows up in the decreased “frequency” of the substance. As wavelength increases, the frequency decreases.
The particle of this substance may be viewed as a sphere whose circumference is equal to the wavelength. The intrinsic motion of this particle is finite, but continuous and never-ending like its spherical surface. This makes the intrinsic motion of the particle equivalent to the spinning of sphere at a certain frequency. The frequency would represent the mass of the particle, whereas wavelength would represent its size. As the wavelength increases the frequency decreases keeping some equilibrium. Thus, there exists a universal balance among the mass, size, and intrinsic motion of the particle.
When the mass is extremely dense, as in the case of the nucleus of atom, the wavelength is very small, and the frequency is very high. High frequency means that the particle is going to be very centered, which leads to high inertia and small velocity. Small wavelength means the size of the particle is going to be very small. The “particle nature” (inertia) dominates, and the wave nature is very subdued.
When the mass becomes diluted, as in the case of electrons, the wavelength is larger and the frequency is lower. The particle is less centered, which means that the center of mass is no longer a sharp point. Inertia lessens, and the velocity increases. The size of the particle increases. The “particle nature” (inertia) no longer dominates as the wave nature also becomes obvious. This is the wave-particle duality of the electron.
When the mass becomes extremely diluted, as in the case of radiation, the wavelength is very large and the frequency is extremely low. The particle is not at all centered. There is very little inertia, and the velocity is extremely large. The size of the particle is very large, much larger than that of the atom. The “particle nature” (inertia) is subdued, and the wave nature dominates.
As an example, the extremely dense proton in a hydrogen atom appears like a dot at the center where more than 99% of the mass is concentrated. Its wavelength is very small but it is spinning at a high rate. The rest of the atom represents a single electron that takes up more than 99% of the volume of the atom. The electron has a much larger wavelength than the proton. Therefore, in a hydrogen atom, the proton resides within the electron. The atom is enveloped in a radiative environment. We may say that the atom resides within a photon of a much larger wavelength.
In general, as a subatomic particle becomes less dense its wavelength increases, and so does its size.
It is a misconception to think that subatomic particles are point-particles whose size may be disregarded. The wave characteristic of a particle exists within the particle itself.
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Matter and Energy
A subatomic particle has the intrinsic aspects of substantiality and motion that balance each other. The concept of matter emphasizes substantiality. The concept of energy emphasizes motion. The two are very different concepts and should not be confused with each other.
Matter represents thickness of substance, and its key characteristic is the inertia of the particle. Energy represents the intrinsic motion of substance, and its key characteristic is the velocity of the particle in space. We observe that inertia and velocity maintain a dynamic balance. For example, the velocity of light is extremely large, but it is still finite because it is being kept in check by the inertia of light.
There is an equivalence between matter and energy. This equivalence is stated in Einstein’s equation E = mc2. But this equivalence does not mean that matter and energy convert into each other. It points only to a dynamic balance that was detailed in the previous section.
It is a misconception to view energy as an aspect of mass and to think that energy condenses into matter. Actually energy is an aspect of motion. Matter and energy establish a dynamic equilibrium.
A “material” particle in space is defined by its center of mass. An “energy” particle is defined by the amount of substance participating in an interaction. The laws of mechanics fail to apply when the center-of-mass cannot be treated as point-like as in the case of subatomic particles and the quanta of radiation.
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The Spin of a Particle
Looking at a spinning top we know that the faster it spins, the more centered and stable it is in space. The intrinsic motion of a subatomic particle, as modeled in the section “Particle and Wave” gives an idea of spin in terms of cyclic motion being equivalent to motion on a sphere. The greater is the frequency of substance, the faster is its spin, and the more centered and stable is the particle.
Thus, the frequency translates into the inertia of the particle, just as the wavelength translates into the velocity of that particle in space. The mathematical description of spin of a subatomic particle more or less refers to its centeredness or inertia. Similarly. The mathematics of the wave function of a subatomic particle seems to refer to its cycle motion and wavelength. They are all related.
It is a misconception to think that mathematics explains the reality. Mathematics serves only as internal logic of science. It is mechanical rather than organic.
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The Size of a Particle
A particle is a unit of substance whose size is proportional to its wavelength. Electron as a particle is 2000 times bigger than a proton. Photon as a particle is more than 200,000 times bigger than an electron. The boundary of a particle is determined by the cycles of motion of which it is constructed. A particle has the property of centeredness, which is proportional to its frequency. This centeredness is manifested as inertia when attempt is made to change its inherent motion.
It is misconception to think that all subatomic particles are smaller in size than the atom.
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The Position of a Particle
The “particle characteristic” of a matter particle comes from its point-like center-of-mass. The location of this center-of-mass denotes the precise, mathematical location of the matter particle. As the mass of a subatomic particle decreases along with the increase in its volume, it becomes “diluted” and dynamic. As a result, the center-of-mass is no loner point-like but become diffused. The “center-of-mass” of the subatomic particle no longer has a precise location. It is like the location in space itself expanding and becoming magnified.
This leads to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927. This principle states that it is fundamentally impossible to measure certain pairs of physical properties—specifically position and momentum—of a subatomic particle simultaneously with arbitrary precision. The more precisely one property is known, the less precisely the other can be known.
Mathematics treats locations in space to be point-like and treats the location of a subatomic particle with probabilities. What is detected is an interaction, which is assumed to be the whole particle at that location. Actually, the particles location is spread over a finite volume of space. This is seen as a field in the quantum theories.
The idea of superposition (multiple states at once) of quantum mechanics also comes from this spread of the particle (center-of mass) over a volume. The idea of entanglement (instantaneous connection) also have the same basis.
It is a misconception to think that the subatomic particles have a point-like center-of-mass, and that they can be treated as point-particles.
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The Quantum
A quantum is the minimum, discrete, and indivisible amount of substance involved in an atomic interaction. It was used by Einstein for particles of radiation that have no mass, and which are all motion. But the particles of radiation have infinitesimal mass, that means the mass has enormously thinned out as it is spread over a very large volume of the particle.
It is a misconception to think that a quantum is wave-like, or have some kind of a fixed form.
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