Reference: Evolution of Physics
This paper presents Chapter II, section 4 from the book THE EVOLUTION OF PHYSICS by A. EINSTEIN and L. INFELD. The contents are from the original publication of this book by Simon and Schuster, New York (1942).
The paragraphs of the original material (in black) are accompanied by brief comments (in color) based on the present understanding. Feedback on these comments is appreciated.
The heading below is linked to the original materials.
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The Velocity of Light
In Galileo’s Two New Sciences we listen to a conversation of the master and his pupils about the velocity of light:
SAGREDO: But of what kind and how great must we consider this speed of light to be? Is it instantaneous or momentary or does it, like other motion, require time? Can we not decide this by experiment?
SIMPLICIO: Everyday experience shows that the propagation of light is instantaneous; for when we see a piece of artillery fired, at great distance, the flash reaches our eyes without lapse of time; but the sound reaches the ear only after a noticeable interval.
SAGREDO: Well, Simplicio, the only thing I am able to infer from this familiar bit of experience is that sound, in reaching our ears, travels more slowly than light; it does not inform me whether the coming of the light is instantaneous or whether, although extremely rapid, it still occupies time ….
SALVIATI: The small conclusiveness of these and other similar observations once led me to devise a method by which one might accurately ascertain whether illumination, i.e., propagation of light, is really instantaneous ….
Salviati goes on to explain the method of his experiment. In order to understand his idea let us imagine that the velocity of light is not only finite, but also small, that the motion of light is slowed down, like that in a slow-motion film. Two men, A and B, have covered lanterns and stand, say, at a distance of one mile from each other. The first man, A, opens his lantern. The two have made an agreement that B will open his the moment he sees A’s light. Let us assume that in our “slow motion” the light travels one mile in a second. A sends a signal by uncovering his lantern. B sees it after one second and sends an answering signal. This is received by A two seconds after he had sent his own. That is to say, if light travels with a speed of one mile per second, then two seconds will elapse between A’s sending and receiving a signal, assuming that B is a mile away. Conversely, if A does not know the velocity of light but assumes that his companion kept the agreement, and he notices the opening of B’s lantern two seconds after he opened his, he can conclude that the speed of light is one mile per second.
With the experimental technique available at that time Galileo had little chance of determining the velocity of light in this way. If the distance were a mile, he would have had to detect time intervals of the order of one hundred-thousandth of a second!
Galileo formulated the problem of determining the velocity of light, but did not solve it. The formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill. To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science. The principle of inertia, the law of conservation of energy were gained only by new and original thoughts about already well-known experiments and phenomena. Many instances of this kind will be found in the following pages of this book, where the importance of seeing known facts in a new light will be stressed and new theories described.
To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science.
Returning to the comparatively simple question of determining the velocity of light, we may remark that it is surprising that Galileo did not realize that his experiment could be performed much more simply and accurately by one man. Instead of stationing his companion at a distance he could have mounted there a mirror, which would automatically send back the signal immediately after receiving it.
About two hundred and fifty years later this very principle was used by Fizeau, who was the first to determine the velocity of light by terrestrial experiments. It had been determined by Roemer much earlier, though less accurately, by astronomical observation.
It is quite clear that in view of its enormous magnitude, the velocity of light could be measured only by taking distances comparable to that between the earth and another planet of the solar system or by a great refinement of experimental technique. The first method was that of Roemer, the second that of Fizeau. Since the days of these first experiments the very important number representing the velocity of light has been determined many times, with increasing accuracy. In our own century a highly refined technique was devised for this purpose by Michelson. The result of these experiments can be expressed simply: The velocity of light in vacuo is approximately 186,000 miles per second, or 300,000 kilometres per second.
The velocity of light in vacuo is approximately 186,000 miles per second, or 300,000 kilometres per second.
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FINAL COMMENTS
The velocity is determined with experiments with visible light. Therefore, this value may vary, though by a very small amount, in the range of electromagnetic spectrum.
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