Monthly Archives: January 2019

Preface: Physics Book (old)

January 17, 2019 – 10:38 PM

See UNIVERSE: Basic Definitions

It has been a while since any major contribution has been made to physical sciences in terms of fundamental theoretical research. It has not been easy to examine physical phenomena at the atomic levels. There are more mathematical explanations than real explanations in modern scientific investigations.

Newton used mathematics to “describe” the void, which could not be realistically described. Maxwell used mathematics to “describe” aether, which was postulated by the wave theory of light. Einstein used mathematics to “describe” space and time in an effort to explain gravity. The increasing use of mathematics in quantum mechanics and particle physics has only resulted in further losing touch with reality.

Although Newtonian mechanics, Maxwell’s Electromagnetic theory, Einstein’s theory of Relativity, and now Quantum mechanics and Particle physics predict remarkably verifiable results in selected areas, they are not integrated enough to predict verifiable results for all physical phenomena.

The very fact that the fundamental theories of physics cannot be reconciled indicates that there are basic assumptions underlying physics that are inconsistent with reality.

The subject of physics started out considering material substance moving in a complete void. It stumbled over the question: “How do material objects influence each other across the void?” Any influence requires contact. The void does not allow any contact.

From the study of electricity and magnetism arose the idea of invisible force fields that could transmit force. This idea of field has changed considerably from Faraday’s lines of force to the abstract mathematical objects of quantum physics. But the interaction between matter and void has yet to be described realistically without using the prop of mathematical symbolism.

This book is written on the premise that physics is taking certain concepts for granted, which needs to be examined more closely.

The subject of physics started out with the consideration that there is matter existing in a void. Therefore, the first two concepts that need to be examined more closely are matter and void.

The Part I of this book traces the discoveries in the subject of physical sciences. Part II then looks at this subject for assumptions.

[NOTE: This is a work in progress.]

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By vinaire | Posted in Physics Book | Comments (0)

Einstein 1920 (XV) General Results

January 6, 2019 – 8:38 PM

Reference: Einstein’s 1920 Book

Section XV (Part 1)
General Results of the Theory

Please see Section XV at the link above.

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ith the velocity of light always takes the place of instantaneous action at a distance or of action at a distance with an infinite velocity of transmission.

Summary

The origins of the special theory of relativity lie in electrodynamics and optics. In its turn, the special theory of relativity has considerably simplified the theoretical structure of electrodynamics and optics.

Classical mechanics required to be modified, mainly in regards to rapid motions, before it could come into line with the demands of the special theory of relativity.

The special theory of relativity points to the equivalence of matter and energy by conserving them together. In other words, it looks at energy as a form of substance.

The conclusion that matter and energy are equivalent is an important one. [NOTE: This prediction of energy converting into inertial mass, and vice versa, was prophetic. It led to the development of atomic bomb and nuclear reactor.]

According to the theory of relativity, action at a distance with the velocity of light always takes the place of instantaneous action at a distance or of action at a distance with an infinite velocity of transmission.

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Comments

Electrodynamics and optics basically introduced the idea of lines of force replacing the idea of empty space. These lines of force form the basis of light in the special theory of relativity. According to Faraday, these lines of force flow in space as light, and they become concentrated in atoms to form mass. This provides the basis for the equivalence of energy and matter. This also provides a bridge between classical mechanics, electrodynamics and optics.

The degree of concentration of the lines of force may be called the “consistency of substance.” Light has very low consistency but very high velocity. On the other hand, matter has very high consistency but very low velocity. Thus, consistency seems to have an inverse relationship to motion. It is the change in consistency that manifests as the change in the velocity of a material body. However, this change denotes the mass that is being converted into energy (and vice versa), which is so small that it is imperceptible. The magnitude of this change in consistency may be assessed from the third term in the mathematical series above. It is of the order of 10-8, which is obtained by substituting v by  the velocity of the earth. 

The Lorentz transformation uses the extrapolation of consistency between light and matter to determine the relativity of motion of material bodies. This extrapolation works in the range of matter only. It takes into account the imperceptible change in consistency that contributes to motion of material bodies. This is how the special theory of relativity modifies classical mechanics. 

The lines of force provide substantiality to space in the form of a “fabric.” The word “space” then defines the extents of this fabric. The word “time” then defines the durability of this fabric at any location in space. Both space and time shall vary in their characteristics as the “fabric” varies in its consistency. 

A totally rigid coordinate system represents a “fabric” of space that is rigid like matter. Any body attached to this coordinate system shall exhibit infinite inertia and a state of no motion. As the coordinate system becomes less rigid, the body attached to it shall display a decrease in inertia and an increase in motion. The amount of motion gained shall depend on the reduction in inertia.

The law of addition of velocities applies when the reduction in inertia is infinitesimal and can be ignored. When the change in inertia cannot be ignored the Lorentz transformation replaces the Galilean transformation. However, when the change in inertia becomes large even the Lorentz transformation becomes inapplicable because it is also an approximation. 

The electromagnetic spectrum may be now expanded into a spectrum of substance. This spectrum shall extend from energy of lowest frequency to matter of highest density. It will show decreasing motion with increasing consistency.

This means that the orbits of planets in the solar system purely are the result of a balance among their inherent consistencies or motion. We see this balance as gravity. It defines gravity as being more than merely a force.

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By vinaire | Posted in Einstein | Comments (0)

Einstein 1920 (XIV) Heuristic Value of Relativity

January 6, 2019 – 9:52 AM

Reference: Einstein’s 1920 Book

Section XIV (Part 1)
The Heuristic Value of the Theory of Relativity

Please see Section XIV at the link above.

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Summary

Lorentz transformation is a definite mathematical condition that the theory of relativity demands of a natural law, and in virtue of this, the theory becomes a valuable heuristic aid in the search for general laws of nature.

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Comments

The fact that Lorentz transformation takes the velocity of light as constant is equivalent to treating light as a point of zero inertia compared to matter that has inertia. The transformation then accounts for the effect of imperceptible changes in inertia of the material bodies on their velocity.

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By vinaire | Posted in Einstein | Comments (0)

Einstein 1920 (XIII) Experiment of Fizeau

January 6, 2019 – 7:38 AM

Reference: Einstein’s 1920 Book

Section XIII (Part 1)
Theorem of the Addition of Velocities. The Experiment of Fizeau

Please see Section XIII at the link above.

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Summary

To verify the results from the special theory of relativity, an experiment needs to be devised in which the v/c ratio is small but not insignificant, so one can see that more than simple addition of velocities (per Galelei transformations) is required to match the reality.

An experiment, which was performed by Fizeau, meets this requirement. When the experimental results are compared with theoretical calculations, they are verified by the transformation of the special theory of relativity, rather than the simple addition of the two velocities. The experimental result thus validates the special theory of relativity.

Fizeau’s experiment presents the circumstance in which the theorem of the addition of velocities employed in classical mechanics does not work. Maxwell-Lorentz theory explained the difference by the use of particular hypotheses as to the electromagnetic structure of matter. But the special theory of relativity uses more general and a much simpler hypothesis to come up with the same conclusion.

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Comments

Addition of velocities is valid when the velocities are of about the same order of magnitude. Lorentz transformation becomes crucial when the velocities to be added are very different in their orders of magnitude.

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By vinaire | Posted in Einstein | Comments (0)

Einstein 1920 (XII) Rods and Clocks

January 5, 2019 – 9:10 PM

Reference: Einstein’s 1920 Book

Section XII (Part 1)
The Behaviour of Measuring-Rods and Clocks in Motion

Please see Section XII at the link above.

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Summary

The rigid unit of rod of the “other” coordinate system will always appear to shrink in its direction of motion. The more quickly it is moving, the shorter is the rod. But since the length of the rod cannot disappear or turn imaginary, the velocity c plays the part of a limiting velocity, which can neither be reached nor exceeded by any real body.

Similarly, the clock of the “other” coordinate system will always appear to run slow. The more quickly it is moving, the slower is the clock. Here also the velocity c plays the part of an unattainable limiting velocity.

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Comments

The above conclusions from the theory of special relativity are often misunderstood, because they are very limited in their validity. Unfortunately, they have been very much exaggerated in general literature leading to very irrational ideas.

First of all, the special theory of relativity predicts the space will always shrink and time will always dilate with motion. This is similar to what you feel when you are sitting in the carriage of a train and the train next to you starts to move slowly. It is not always true that you are always at rest and the other train is always in motion. There is an illusion involved because one is not looking at some other pertinent factors.

Based on Michelson-Morley’s experiment; the measurement of the speed of light of 3 x 108 meters/second was not affected by the velocity of the earth, which is 3 x 104 meters/second relative to the sun. This velocity of the earth is 1/10,000 of the speed of light. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation is good for v/c ratios of the order of 1/10,000. The “v/c ratios” of most material bodies in the universe are of this order. The special theory of relativity is not valid for v/c ratios that are greater in order than 1/10,000. For Lorentz transformation to be applicable in practice, c must be extremely large compared to v. So, way before v approaches c this transformation stops being applicable in practice.

It is inconsistent to have the space always shrink and time always dilate. This inconsistency is resolved at the level of the general theory of relativity.

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By vinaire | Posted in Einstein | Comments (0)