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Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART II – THE FOUNDATIONS OF ATOMIC CHEMISTRY

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 10: The Birth of Atomic Theory (John Dalton 1766 – 1844)

Dalton was investigating why oxygen and nitrogen remained mixed in air and did not separate, when he accidentally discovered that oxygen and nitrogen combined in definite ratios. Dalton had a physical particle picture of gases, which led him to assume that a chemical reaction is only the combination of an atom of one substance with that of another. This led to the inference that the relative weights of the constituent atoms in compounds could be determined. This established the foundation of atomic chemistry.

Chapter 11: The Volume Combination of Gases (Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac 1778 – 1850)

Gay Lussac showed that if gases enter into chemical reactions, they do so in numerically simple volume ratios, and the volume of the products, if gaseous, may be expressed by simple integral numerical ratios to the volume of the original reactants. This is true for gases only, where the force of cohesion between atoms and molecules is minimum, and where most of the volume is due to the “atmosphere of heat” surrounding the nuclei. The volume ratio is, most likely, also the ratio of atoms and molecules that combine.

Chapter 12: Atoms and Molecules – Avogadro’s Law (Amedeo Avogadro 1776 – 1856)

Avogadro’s principle is that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. By this principle, Avogadro correctly deduced the chemical formula for water, ammonia, nitrous oxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. However, for the principle to be valid it was necessary to introduce a new hypothesis, namely, that the ultimate particles of many of the elementary gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen were molecules i.e., combinations of two, or sometimes more, atoms.

Chapter 13: The Search for Primordial Material (William Prout 1785 – 1850)

The notion that all matter is composed of the same primary substance and that when organized in different ways produces the various elements, occurs far back in antiquity. In Daltonian theory, atoms were distinguished by their different masses. Prout hypothesized that the atoms of all elements are simply combinations of hydrogen. 

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MAIN POINTS

1. Atoms of different substances combine in definite ratios.
2. A chemical reaction is such combination of atoms of different substances.
3. The force of cohesion between atoms and molecules is minimum in gaseous phase.
4. Gases combine in numerically simple volume ratios.
5. Equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
6. The ultimate particles of many elementary gases are combinations of two, or sometimes more, atoms.
7. The atoms of all elements are simply combinations of hydrogen. 

THEORY
The atom is a spinning nucleus surrounded by a vortex of energy substance. All its mass is concentrated in the nucleus of negligible volume. All its volume comprises of the energy vortex of negligible mass. All different atoms have masses that are multiples of the mass of hydrogen atom. These atoms combine in simple and definite ratios.

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Here is my view on the reality of space-time.

• The Euclidean space is an idealization of dimensions of matter.
• Space is not necessarily discrete like dimensions of matter.
• Space is not necessarily rigid like dimensions of matter.
• In reality, space is neither discrete nor rigid.

Here the word “discrete” is used in the sense opposite to “continuous” meaning “apart or detached from others; separate; distinct”. We can talk about dimensions in discrete terms, but we cannot do so with space. Space is a continuous whole.

Here the word “rigid” is used in the sense opposite to “flexible” meaning “firmly fixed or set”. We can talk about units for the dimensions of matter to be fixed, but not so for space.

• A Euclidean point is an idealization of a location in space.
• A location in space is not necessarily dimensionless.
• A location is continuous with the space around it.
• A location is approximated by a discrete point only when there is matter.

It is matter that fixes locations in space by virtue of being rigid. When there is no matter, we cannot fix or pinpoint locations in space.

• Calculus approaches continuity from the direction of discreteness.
• Calculus talks about gradually shrinking infinitesimals in that process.
• We need mathematics that approaches discreteness from the direction of continuity.
• Such mathematics will approach discreteness as frequency.

Calculus uses a matter-centric viewpoint that approximates continuity in terms of shrinking infinitesimals. When there is no matter as in the case of electromagnetic fields we cannot use rigid infinitesimals for reference. We may need to use lessening frequency to approach continuity. Here discreteness seems to be provided by frequency.

• Mathematics considers a discrete point to be a primitive notion.
• In reality, it is the continuous space, which is a primitive notion.
• The rigidity of space is a function of disturbance in it.
• Infinite frequency of disturbance generates total rigidity in space.

We cannot use dimensionless Euclidean point as primitive notion because it is not seen as expanding into a continuous space. But we can use continuous space as primitive notion because we can see it as shrinking to generate a dense point that approaches discreteness. It is this “density” that can be associated with rigidity.

• Discreteness starts to form as space is disturbed.
• This discreteness increases with frequency.
• At a certain threshold  frequency, rotational fields start to form within the electromagnetic fields.
• The first stable form of such rotational field is the electron.

It is postulated that electromagnetic field is the disturbed space. As this disturbance increases as frequency, pockets of rotational electronic fields appear in the wider electromagnetic field.

• As these rotational fields grow the high frequencies at their center starts to collapse to form a hard nucleus.
• The next stable form of this rotational field appears to be the hydrogen atom.
• Mass is naturally created in the nucleus as the frequency of disturbance increases the most at the center.
• The mysterious factor here is the role of “frequency”.

Mass is naturally created in the nucleus as the frequency of disturbance increases. The task now is to understand the nature of this disturbance.

The theory of special relativity talks about contraction of space and dilation of time at speeds approaching the speed of light. Such conclusions are subjective because the “observer” in that theory is limited in its observation by the speed of light.

Objectivity exists to the degree observer uses the whole universe as its reference. This means using all physical and mental senses. The moment one uses part of the universe as its reference one’s viewpoint descends into subjectivity. Thus mathematics employed by Einstein’s theory of Special Relativity is subjective.

Objectivity is the consistency among inputs from all physical and mental senses. To the degree this consistency is missing, observation is incomplete and subjective.

Reference: From my response on Quora

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This research may be summarized as follows,

(1) From void to the core of the black hole, there is a spectrum of substance of increasing consistency.

(2) Substance has intrinsic motion. That motion is theoretically zero for the core of the black hole where the consistency is infinite; and that motion is theoretically infinite for the void where the consistency is zero.

(3) The intrinsic motion is inversely proportional to the consistency throughout the spectrum of substance.

This relationship is as basic as the Newton’s laws of motion.