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The Physics Book.

The Quantum (old)

June 4, 2021 – 7:35 AM

I differ in my understanding of QUANTA. It applies to electromagnetic radiation. Einstein looked at quanta as corpuscles in space, and so does current science. But I look at quanta as the consistency (a degree of density, firmness, viscosity, etc.) of radiation. The idea of corpuscles comes from reactions that we see in experiments where radiation is involved.

For example, in a double-slit experiment with electrons we see flashes of light when the electrons hit the screen. We, therefore, think that the electrons are corpuscles. But then we see a light and dark pattern emerging on the screen, which means that the electron flow is actually a wave form that passed through both the slits. This is not possible when we think of electrons as corpuscles.

The best explanation is that electron flow is a flow of thick energy through the double-slit that reacts as points where its wave front impacts the screen. The whole wave seems to get concentrated at the point of impact.

This provides a different picture of the “particles” of Quantum Mechanics.

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Earlier I wrote in Final Comments to Einstein 1938: The Quanta of Light:

In the photoelectric effect, an increase in the intensity of light only increased the number of electrons emitted and not their energy (velocity). This implies an increase in the same type of interactions between light and electrons. Hence, light must also be composed of particles like electrons.

When the wavelength of light was increased, it lowered the energy of the electrons emitted, and not their number. This implies that the energy was supplied by the composition of light particles and not by their kinetic energy. In other words, the inertia (innate force) of light particles converted into the velocity of the electrons. It is like a conversion from “mass” into “energy”.

A constant velocity is an outcome of balanced forces. Inertia is the innate force of the substance that balances the acceleration of the quantum particle. As this balance shifts, so does the velocity. Thus, underlying the exchange of energy there is a balance of forces in terms of momentum.

Einstein refers to these light and electricity particles as “energy quanta”, but, much earlier, Faraday referred to them as lines of force. These lines of force may be viewed as string-like “force quanta”. This view explains the wave properties of light and generates no conflict with its quantum properties.”

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The World of Atom (Part XV)

May 21, 2021 – 11:37 AM

Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART XV –NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND NUCLEAR ENERGY

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 89: Nuclear Theory (Werner K. Heisenberg 1901 – 1976)

The Normal States of Atomic Nuclei. Many properties of the nucleus can be discussed and understood without making specific assumptions about nucleons. The binding energy per nucleon remains the same as we go to heavier nuclei; that means nucleons inside the nucleus interact only with their nearest neighbors. The volume of the nucleus is proportional to the number of nucleons; that means nucleons are spread out uniformly throughout the nucleus.

Chapter 90: Energy Production in Stars (Hans A. Bethe 1906 – 2005)

Energy Production in Stars. Bethe set forth the law: As long as the neutron and the proton are separated by more than a critical distance (of the order of 10-13 cm) they have no influence on each other; if they are closer, there is a constant but very large pull between them. His work led to the discovery of the nuclear reactions that generate the radiation of stars. Bethe’s pioneering work with the proton-proton chain and the carbon cycle laid the foundation for the great advances that have occurred in our knowledge of the structure and the evolution of stars.

Chapter 91: Fission (Lise Meitner 1878 – 1968, Otto R. Frisch 1904 – 1968, Niels Bohr 1885 – 1962)

Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons. The more neutrons we add to the nucleus, the more protons we must add. The bottom gets filled up with 2 protons and 2 neutrons. As more protons and neutrons are added they get stacked up getting closer to the “top of the crater.” Thus, a great deal more energy can be obtained from a fission process than is supplied to the nucleus to induce the fission. Lise Meitner and O. R. Frisch used the liquid-drop model of Bohr to point out how a splitting of uranium can occur under the appropriate conditions. They were among the first to analyze the experimental data correctly and originate the idea of nuclear fission in 1939. 

Chapter 92: Chain-Reacting Pile (Enrico Fermi 1901 – 1954)

Experimental Production of a Divergent Chain Reaction. The first chain reaction was obtained on December 2, 1942 with a “pile” constructed and successfully operated at the University of Chicago. Fermi and his co-workers achieved this by clever geometry and a proper distribution of the uranium atoms relative to carbon atoms. To produce a chain reaction or a self-sustaining pile a game of slowing down and catching neutrons must be played. Fermi showed that a chain reaction is possible only if at least 1.22 of the original 2 neutrons become thermal neutrons and give rise to fission.

Chapter 93: Power from Fusion (Ernest W. Titterton 1914 – 1990)

Power from Fusion? Long lasting radioactive byproducts from fission process make it an untenable power source. The possibility of producing power without such hazard exists through the use of nuclear fusion. This is the natural process of “thermonuclear” reactions occurring in our sun and all the stars. Unfortunately, to produce fusion artificially is a difficult task. An account of the way in which fusion comes about and how this process proceeds naturally in the stars is lucidly explained in E. W. Titterton’s book ‘Facing the Atomic Future’.

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MAIN POINTS

  1. The binding energy per nucleon remains the same as we go to heavier nuclei.
  2. That means nucleons inside the nucleus interact only with their nearest neighbors. 
  3. The volume of the nucleus is proportional to the number of nucleons.
  4. That means nucleons are spread out uniformly throughout the nucleus.
  5. The neutron and the proton have no influence on each other, as long as they are separated by 10-13 cm or more.
  6. If they are closer, there is a constant but very large pull between them. 
  7. Nuclear reactions generate the radiation of stars similar to the sun.
  8. Both the carbon cycle and the proton-proton chain operate simultaneously in stellar interiors.
  9. The more neutrons we add to the nucleus, the more protons we must add.
  10. A great deal more energy can be obtained from a fission process than is supplied to the nucleus to induce the fission.
  11. A chain reaction is possible only if at least 1.22 of the original 2 neutrons become thermal neutrons and give rise to fission.
  12. Long lasting radioactive byproducts from fission process make it an untenable power source. 
  13. The possibility of producing power without such hazard exists through the use of nuclear fusion. 

THEORY
Nuclear reactions generate the radiation of stars similar to the sun. Future research on nucleus requires closer study of the stars.

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The World of Atom (Part XIV)

April 24, 2021 – 7:33 AM

Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART XIV – NEWER DEVELOPMENTS IN ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR THEORY

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 81: Mesons (Cecil Frank Powell 1903 – 1969)

Mesons. In 1947 Powell and Occhialini discovered pion tracks on special photographic plates exposed to cosmic rays. Powell received the Nobel Prize in 1950 for developing special photographic techniques for the study of cosmic rays and applying the techniques to the analysis of mesons found in such rays. This discovery confirmed Yukawa’s theory about the nature of nuclear force.

Chapter 82: The Antiproton (Emilio Segrè 1905 – 1989, Owen Chamberlain 1920 – 2006)

Antiprotons. In 1955 Segrè and Chamberlain discovered the antiproton for which they received the Nobel prize in 1959. The antiproton was predicted by Dirac’s theory, but to produce it required vastly more energy, over a six-billion-volt proton as a bombarding particle. Collisions at this energy produced some 40,000 other particles. The recognition of antiproton required precise alignment of detectors and counters along with the demonstration that these particles annihilate protons and neutrons. The existence of the antinucleon greatly strengthens the belief of physicists that antimatter exists as the normal state of things in a different part of our universe.

Chapter 83: Nuclear Magnetic Moment (Isidor I. Rabi 1898 – 1988)

Quantization in a Gyrating Magnetic Field. I. I. Rabi developed the most precise and elegant method for measuring the size of the magnetic moment of a nucleus that was needed to construct a nuclear model. His starting point was the Stern and Gerlach experiment to which he added a longer path and auxiliary fields that could rotate and oscillate at adjustable frequencies. This finally led to the molecular beam resonance method that could precisely determine the magnetic moments of nuclei. His experiments won him a Nobel prize in physics in 1944.

Chapter 84: Hydrogen and the Elementary Particles (Willis E. Lamb, Jr. 1913 – 2008)

Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. In 1947, Lamb designed a very ingenious and beautiful experiment, based on microwave techniques, to analyze the fine structure of the hydrogen lines for n = 2. The experiment showed that there is a 1000 megacycle-per-second separation between the 2S½ and 2P½ levels, in disagreement with the prediction of Dirac’s theory. This remarkable experiment led to the mass renormalization theories of Bethe, Schwinger, Feynman and Tomonaga, and indicated how the Dirac theory must be corrected to conform to the observed results. Lamb won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1955 “for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum.” 

Chapter 85: Magnetic Moment of the Electron (Polykarp Kusch 1911 – 1993)

Magnetic Moment of the Electron. Another discrepancy from Dirac’s theory detected experimentally was the value of the magnetic moment of the electron. It became clear that the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron must differ from 1 Bohr magneton by about 1%. This suggested the need of a very precise determination for g-factor associated with spin of the electron. This was undertaken by Kusch. The agreement was about 1 part in a billion. This result is extremely important since it demonstrates the high degree of accuracy of the improved quantum electrodynamics in analyzing the interaction of an electron and an electromagnetic field.

Chapter 86: High Energy Physics (Hans Bethe 1906 – 2005, Julian Schwinger 1918 – 1994, Richard Feynman 1918 – 1988)

The Electromagnetic Shift of Energy Levels. An error in the Dirac theory arises because it regards the electron as a point without a surrounding radiation field. There is therefore no limit as to how energetic the photons may be with which the electron could interact. This is equivalent to saying that the interaction of the electron with the radiation field surrounding it leads to an infinite correction to its mass. Bethe was the first to obtain a fairly accurate value by an approximate non-relativistic method. Schwinger and Feynman then independently came up with a precise relativistic procedure for mass and charge renormalization.

Chapter 87: The Nuclear Shell (Johannes D. Jensen 1907 – 1973)

The History of the theory of Structure of The Atomic Nucleus. There is a nuclear shell structure similar to the electronic shell structure. For electronic shells the numbers of electrons that completely fill the shells are: 2, 8, 18, 32, etc. For nucleon shells such numbers for neutrons or protons are: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, and so on. When these nucleon shells are completely filled, we get an extremely stable and abundant nucleus. It was for shell structure theory of the nucleus that Jensen shared the 1963 Nobel Prize.

Chapter 88: Radiocarbon Dating (Willard F. Libby 1908 – 1980)

Radiocarbon Dating. Libby discovered C14, with a half-life of 5,568 years, as the radioactive substance that could be used to date substances in the organic world. The method depends on the fact that all samples of atmospheric carbon dioxide are radioactive and consequently all plants, animals and humans are radioactive in a balanced way. When death occurs the balance immediately ceases, and the radiocarbon atoms become fewer and fewer as time goes on.  Libby was honored by the Nobel Prize in chemistry for 1960 for his development of the C14 dating techniques.

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MAIN POINTS

  1. The nuclear force is very small and operates at very small range.
  2. It consists of pions that are tossed back and forth between the two nucleons.
  3. Recognition of antiproton and antineutron and its proof (confirms Dirac’s theory).
  4. Apparently, antimatter exists as the normal state of things in a different part of our universe.
  5. Measurement of the size of the magnetic moment of a nucleus needed to construct a nuclear model.
  6. Fine structure of the hydrogen lines, as predicted by the Dirac theory, does not agree with the observational data.
  7. Error in Dirac’s theory because it treats the electron as an isolated point.
  8. High degree of accuracy of the improved quantum electrodynamics.
  9. A precise relativistic procedure for mass and charge renormalization in electrodynamics.
  10. There is a nuclear shell structure similar to the electronic shell structure.
  11. Radiocarbon dating of archeological artifacts and historical periods.

THEORY
The nucleus forms the extremely small core of the atomic vortex. The rotating orbital within the nucleus are similar to the orbitals in the electronic region, but they are extremely small and tight.

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The World of Atom (Part XIII)

March 25, 2021 – 3:59 PM

Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

PART XIII – NEW PARTICLES AND ATOMIC ACCELERATORS

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

Chapter 72: The positive Electron – The First Particle of Antimatter (Carl D. Anderson 1905 – 1991)

The Positive Electron. Dirac’s theory implies negative-energy states and the possibility of electrons emerging from these states along with anti-electrons (positrons). Dirac suggested that the chance of such pair being created would be small because it would require energy equivalent to at least twice the mass of electron. However enough energy is present in cosmic radiation to create such a pair as it passes through a sheet of matter. Carl Anderson’s discovery of such pair of particles in his cosmic ray photographs established the Dirac theory as one of the most reliable in physics. This has led to the concept of antimatter.

Chapter 73: The discovery of the Deuteron (Harold Clayton Urey 1893 – 1981)

A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and its concentration. Fractional distillation of hydrogen to obtain a concentration of deuteron was accomplished by Harold Urey in 1932. This allowed the experimental investigation which resulted in the discovery of neutron soon afterwards.

Chapter 74: Discovery of the Neutron (James Chadwick 1891 – 1974)

The Existence of a Neutron. Scientists faced great difficulty in accounting for the mass and charge of a nucleus in terms of the electron and proton only. Chadwick pictured the beryllium radiation as being not electromagnetic but rather as consisting of neutral particles with masses equal to the mass of the proton. He proved that these particles are highly penetrating because they have no charge and are thus not repelled by the electric fields surrounding nuclei. Neutron and proton are now considered as two different energy states of the same fundamental particle, the nucleon. 

Chapter 75: Fermi’s Contributions (Enrico Fermi 1901 – 1954)

Quanta of a Field as Particles. Fermi-Dirac statistics add the restriction that electrons influence one another in such a way as to pre-empt or exclude identical motion in the same volume element (Pauli’s exclusion principle). Fermi did this to account for degeneracy. This was soon used to explain the properties of metals and to solve all kinds of solid-state problems. Fermi showed how various atomic problems can be treated statistically, to give results that are fairly accurate. Fermi demonstrated the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation. He developed a complete theory of β-decay and β-emission from the nucleus. His neutron research finally culminated in the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction on Dec 2, 1942.

Chapter 76: Artificial Nuclear Disintegration (John Cockcroft 1897 – 1967, Ernest Walton 1903 – 1995)

Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. Cockcroft and Walton were the first to construct an ion accelerator of sufficient energy to produce nuclear disintegrations.Gamow showed that α-particles, because of their wave nature, do indeed penetrate the Coulomb potential barrier at relatively low energies. Cockcroft became convinced that the wave properties of protons would allow them to enter light nuclei at low energies. Ernest Walton was then developing one of the first linear accelerators. Their collaboration in 1932 resulted in the first proton-induced artificial nuclear disintegration. The results showed that nuclei could be disrupted by particles of lower energy than previously supposed.

Chapter 77: The Electrostatic Generator (Robert Jemison Van De Graaff 1901 – 1967)

The Electrostatic Production of High Voltage for Nuclear Investigations. The Van de Graaff generator was developed as a particle accelerator for physics research; its high potential is used to accelerate subatomic particles to great speeds in an evacuated tube. It was the most powerful type of accelerator of the 1930s until the cyclotron was developed.

Chapter 78: The Cyclotron (Ernest O. Lawrence 1901 – 1958), Milton S. Livingston 1905 – 1986)

Production of High-Speed Ions. Lawrence introduced a new procedure: to accelerate ions to very high speeds in a series of steps, each of which would involve only a relatively small voltage. In a cyclotron, one must first have a magnetic field at right angles to the plane of the path of the ion and then an alternating electric field that changes its direction periodically in phase with motion of the ion.

Chapter 79: The Discovery of Induced Radioactivity (Jean F. Joliot 1900 – 1958, Irene Curie Joliot 1897 – 1956)

A New Type of Radioactivity. The Joliot-Curies showed in 1934 that when lighter elements, such as boron and aluminum, were bombarded with α-particles, the lighter elements continued to emit radiation even after the α−source was removed. They showed that this radiation consisted of positrons. The induced radioactivity appeared because an unstable nucleus had been created. This discovery set off similar research in physics laboratories around the world. 

Chapter 80: Prediction of the Meson (Hideki Yukawa 1907 – 1981)

On the Interaction of Elementary Particles. Hideki Yukawa developed a quantum field theory of the nuclear forces. He quantized the nuclear force field in complete analogy with the electromagnetic radiation field. The interaction between two charged particles is described as arising from the mutual emission and absorption of photons. Yukawa postulated that a much heavier particle is emitted by the neutron and then absorbed by the proton that generates strong interactions between them and thus account for nuclear forces. Later pi mesons (pions) were discovered that have the property predicted by Yukawa.

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MAIN POINTS

  1. Discovery of positron confirm the negative energy levels of Dirac’s theory.
  2. At the fundamental level matter and antimatter are created together.
  3. Discovery of Deuteron helped with the discovery of neutron.
  4. Neutron and proton are two different energy states of the same fundamental particle.
  5. Development of particle accelerators for research of the nucleus.
  6. Creation of unstable nucleus and induced radioactivity.
  7. A quantum field theory of the nuclear forces.

THEORY
The inside of the nucleus has no charge. It mainly consists of “neutrons.” As the energy levels decrease in the direction of increasing radius the neutron becomes a positively charged proton. Therefore, “protons” seem to exist on the surface of the nucleus. As energy level decreases further with increasing radius, the charge switches polarity, and we have negatively charged electrons. A sharp gradient of decrease in mass exists from proton to electron. Beyond electrons we have the fluid energy of electromagnetic radiation. The charged layer made up of protons and electrons is like a softening solid becoming partially fluid. Therefore, in nature, solid mass is separated from fluid energy by a semi-fluid layer of charge. The solid mass, the electrifying charge, and the fluid energy exist in perfect balance.

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The World of Atom (Part XII)

March 6, 2021 – 9:30 PM

Reference: Boorse 1966: The World of Atom

THE WORLD OF ATOM by Boorse

PART XII – WAVE MECHANICS 

Chapter 62: The Principle of Least Action (William Rowan Hamilton 1805 – 1865)

On a General Method of Expressing the Paths of Light, and of the Planets, by the Coefficients of a Characteristic Function. Hamilton’s mathematics was based on the analogy between the behavior of light of very short wavelength and the behavior of ordinary particles of matter. He demonstrated that the dynamical problem may be solved by considering the motion of a system as though it were a gradual unfolding of a series of states, each one derived from the preceding one by an infinitesimal transformation similar to what we have when a ray of light advances from one wave front to the next. 

Chapter 63: The Wavelengths of Particles (Prince Lois V. de Broglie 1892 – 1987)

The Undulatory Aspects of the Electron. At small scales, there is dualism in Nature between waves and corpuscles. The wavelength associated with a corpuscle is as concrete a physical quantity as its mass. The velocity of the corpuscle is equal to the group velocity of its associated wave. Planck showed that energy is connected to frequency, E = hv. It can also be shown that momentum is connected to wavelength, p = h/λ. This is a fundamental relation of the Theory.

Chapter 64: A Wave Equation for Particles (Erwin Schrodinger 1887 – 1961)

Derivation of the fundamental idea of wave mechanics from Hamilton’s analogy between ordinary mechanics and Geometrical Optics. At close range, the particle appears to be a wave motion represented mathematically by a continuous manifold of wave functions. Using this approach, Schrodinger could derive the arbitrary integers assigned to electron’s energy-levels in the Bohr’s Atomic model.

Chapter 65: Statistics and Waves (Max Born 1882 – 1970)

Wave Corpuscles. The waves do not represent physical vibrations but rather the unfolding of the probabilities of future events from a given initial state. The complex amplitudes of the waves obtained as solutions to Schrodinger’s wave equation can be interpreted better as the probability of finding the electron at a location.

Chapter 66: The Uncertainty Principle (Werner Karl Heisenberg 1901 – 1976)

Critique of the Physical Concepts of the Corpuscular Theory of Matter. Heisenberg discovered the foundation of quantum mechanics—the uncertainty principle.The uncertainty principle refers to a limit on the accuracy with which we can measure certain pairs of quantities simultaneously. Heisenberg introduced his square arrays or matrices, which depict the electron as existing simultaneously in all possible Bohr orbits.

Chapter 67: The Barrier around the Nucleus (George Gamow 1904 – 1968)

Quantum Theory of the Atomic Nucleus. While Gamow’s paper explains the spontaneous emission of  particles (alpha decay) from radioactive nuclei, it also validates Schrodinger’s wave equation inside the nucleus and demonstrates the correctness of Born’s concept that the Schrodinger wave function is the probability amplitude for finding a particle in a given small neighborhood of space.

Chapter 68: Electron Waves (Clinton J. Davisson 1881 – 1958, George Paget Thomson 1892 – 1975)

Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin Film. Davisson: Electrons reflect from crystalline surfaces. The relationship between the angle of maximum intensity, the speed of the electrons, and the lattice spacing in the crystal are the same as that for a wave. Thomson: The rings arising from diffraction show the wave properties of the electron. The radius of the rings is inversely proportional to the velocity of the electrons. These experiments provided evidence supporting the De Broglie equation.

Chapter 69: The Electron and Relativity (Paul Adrian Maurice Dirac 1902 – 1984)

The Principle of Superposition. All one needs to know about the observable properties in order to understand their physics is the algebra that governs them (theory of operators). A system in quantum mechanics must be looked upon as simultaneously being in a whole set of states rather than in some particular state. The electron is forced in one of these states due to the perturbation of measurement. Dirac’s idea of states very brilliantly connected the Schrodinger wave function with the probability concept ascribed by Born.

Chapter 70: “Holes” in the Dirac Theory (J. Robert Oppenheimer 1904 – 1967)

On the Theory of Electrons and Protons. Dirac’s theory predicts the existence of an infinite continuum of negative energy. Dirac proposed that all but few of these negative-energy states are filled with electrons with negative energy; negative-energy states that do not have electrons represent protons. Oppenheimer pointed out that this hole theory gave a different mass dependence and led to insurmountable difficulties. He proposed to retain the picture of the electron and the proton as two independent particles of opposite sign and dissimilar mass and to picture all of Dirac’s negative-energy states as filled. 

Chapter 71: Complementarity (Niels Bohr 1885 – 1962)

Discussion with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics. The discussion led to the Principle of Complementarity: There are always two complementary and mutually exclusive ways of looking at a physical phenomenon, depending on how we arrange our apparatus to measure the phenomenon. When we deal with an electron, we must use both the wave picture and the particle picture; one is complementary to the other in the sense that the more our apparatus is designed to look for the electron as a particle, the less the electron behaves like a wave and vice versa.

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MAIN POINTS

  1. The behavior of light of very short wavelength approximates the behavior of ordinary particles of matter.
  2. The wavelength associated with a corpuscle is as concrete a physical quantity as its mass.
  3. The velocity of the corpuscle is equal to the group velocity of its associated wave.
  4. Energy is connected to frequency, and momentum is connected to wavelength.
  5. At close range, the particle appears to be a wave motion.
  6. The “waves” represent the unfolding of the probabilities of future events from a given initial state.
  7. The electron seems to exist simultaneously in all possible Bohr orbits.
  8. The mathematics applied to electrons seems to work inside the nucleus as well.
  9. A quantum system is simultaneously in a whole set of states rather than in some particular state.

THEORY
The mathematical development seems to confirm that electrons are a wavelike flow that has variable consistency. Even the nucleus is a pattern of a very condensed flow.

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