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Reference: The Story of Philosophy 

Homer (born c. 8th century BCE)

Homer’s philosophy, as reflected in his epic poems, encompasses several key themes:

1. Divine intervention in human affairs: The gods actively participate in and influence human events. This supernatural causation is seen as more powerful than natural human agency.
2. Whimsical nature of the gods: The gods are often portrayed as capricious and divided among themselves, leading to an unpredictable causal order in the natural world.
3. Morality and power: Humans worship the gods not for their moral qualities but for their power. Ethical concepts are present but not consistently applied by gods or humans.
4. Human agency and fate: While divine intervention is prominent, human actions and decisions also play a crucial role in shaping events.
5. Heroism and honor: Homer’s works foster ideals of heroism, glory, and honor, which shaped ancient Greek culture and education.
6. Limited transcendence: Homer suggests that humans can aspire to transcendence but should be wary of seeking total transcendence beyond the human condition.
7. Tension between home and knowledge: The Odyssey explores the conflict between the desire for exploration and the longing for home, representing the human struggle between particular and universal aspects of existence.

Homer’s works served as a foundation for Greek religion, community, and knowledge. While later philosophers like Plato criticized Homer’s portrayal of the gods and morality, his influence on Greek thought and subsequent Western philosophy is undeniable.

Thales (c. 626/623  – c. 548/545 BC)

1. Materialism: Thales believed that the physical world could be explained through natural, observable principles.
2. Monism: He proposed that everything in the universe could be traced back to a single substance – water.
3. Rational inquiry: Thales used observation and logical reasoning to develop his theories, setting a precedent for scientific investigation.
4. Unification of nature: By proposing water as the fundamental substance, Thales attempted to find a unifying principle in nature.

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Pythagoras  (c. 570 – c. 495 BC)

1. Mathematics as the foundation of reality: Pythagoras believed that numbers were the building blocks of the universe and that everything could be understood through numerical relationships.
2. Metempsychosis: He taught the concept of the transmigration of souls, believing that the soul was immortal and would pass into another body after death.
3. Ethical behavior: Pythagoras emphasized the importance of cultivating virtues like wisdom, courage, and self-control to achieve harmony and balance in life.
4. Moderation: He advocated for restraint and self-discipline, believing that excess led to imbalance and disharmony1.
5. Divine source: Pythagoras believed in a single, divine source of all things, which he called the Monad.
6. Interconnectedness: He taught that everything in the universe was interconnected.
7. Transcendent realm: Pythagoras believed in the existence of a transcendent realm of reality, which he called the world of Forms.
8. Religious practices: He developed a system of religious beliefs and practices, including the worship of various gods and the use of music and dance in ceremonies.
9. Dietary restrictions: Pythagoras prescribed a strict way of life that included dietary restrictions as part of religious ritual and self-discipline.

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Eleatic School (fl. 6th and 5th century BCE)

1. Monism: a single, unchanging reality that is indivisible and eternal.
2. Immutability: reality cannot change, and all perceived changes are mere illusions.
3. Unity of Being: the true explanation of things lies in the conception of a universal unity of being.
4. Rejection of Sensory Experience: relied on logical standards of clarity and necessity as criteria for truth.
5. Denial of Change and Motion: change and motion are impossible… our senses deceive us.
6. Logical Reasoning: Zeno of Elea, employed logical arguments and paradoxes to support their views.
7. Critique of Pluralism: opposed the explanation of existence in terms of primary matter… opposed Heraclitus’ theory of perpetual change.

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Parmenides (fl. Just before 500 BC)

1. Reality is One: all of reality is a single, unchanging, and indivisible entity.
2. Change is Impossible: true reality cannot come into being or cease to exist. 
3. Truth vs. Appearance: There is timeless truth and a false world of appearance. 
4. Rejection of Nothingness: “nothing” cannot exist or be thought about. 
5. Limitations of Sensory Perception: questioned the reliability of human senses.
6. Logical Reasoning: employed deductive arguments to support his claims.

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Heraclitus (fl. 500 BCE)

1. Universal flux: everything is constantly changing.
2. Unity of opposites: opposites are interconnected and define each other… conflict and opposition are essential for creating unity.
3. Fire as the fundamental element: fire represents change and energy. 
4. Logos (reason or word): emphasized Logos as the universal principle governing all things.
5. Nature of Reality: the true nature of reality was hidden from ordinary people.

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Zeno of Elea (c. 490-425 BCE)

1. Monism: reality is a single, eternal, and unchanging entity called “Being”.
2. Rejection of plurality and motion: claimed these concepts led to logical contradictions.
3. Paradoxes: He developed a series of paradoxes, most famously those concerning motion.
4. Critique of sense perception: sense perception is unreliable for understanding true reality.
5. Use of reductio ad absurdum:  argumentative technique to deconstruct commonly held beliefs.
6. Influence on dialectics: Used contradictory ideas to develop thinking.

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Protagoras (c. 490 BC – c. 420 BC)

1. Relativism and Subjectivism
   1. Denied the existence of objective truth and values.
   2. Truth and knowledge are relative to individual perception and experience.
   3. What is perceived as true or false, good or bad, depends entirely on the individual’s perspective.
2. Humanism
   1. Emphasized human interests and values. 
   2. Human experience and perception should form the basis of all knowledge and ethical decisions.
3. Ethics and Politics
   1. Societies must create laws and moral codes through practical agreement.
   2. What is ‘right’ is what benefits the community and is agreed upon by its members.
4. Rhetoric and Argumentation
   1. Emphasized the power of persuasive speech in shaping public opinion and policy.
5. Agnosticism
   1. No means of knowing whether gods exist or not.
   2. Human life is too short.

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Gorgias (c. 485–c. 380 BCE)

1. Ontology and Epistemology
   1. Nothing exists.
   2. Even if something exists, it is incomprehensible to humans.
   3. Even if it is comprehensible, it cannot be communicated or interpreted to others.
2. Rhetoric and Logos
   1. Rhetoric is the supreme art, capable of persuading an audience on any subject.
   2. Logos (speech) is a “powerful lord” with effects comparable to drugs on the body.
   3. The orator had an ethical obligation to avoid deception
3. Truth and Knowledge
   1. Absolute forms of knowledge or virtue do not exist. 
   2. Truth could only be found within a given moment.
   3. Effective argumentation is more important than universal truths.
4. Virtue 
   1. Virtue was relative to each situation.
   2. Virtue varied between different roles and contexts.

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Empedocles (fl. 444–443 BC)

1. Four Elements: all matter in the universe is composed of four root elements: earth, air, fire, and water. 
2. Love and Strife: two opposing forces—Love and Strife—act upon the elements.
3. Cosmic Cycle: The universe is continually undergoing the cycles of creation and destruction.

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Prodicus (c. 465 BC – c. 395 BC)

1. Semantics and Language
   1. Meticulous approach to language
   2. Pioneering work in distinguishing between synonyms and exploring precise word meanings
2. Naturalistic Theology
   1. Gods were originally representations of natural elements and forces
   2. They explained aspects of the natural world humans depended on for survival
   3. Deities like Demeter and Dionysus were personifications of grain and wine, respectively
3. Ethics and Morality
   1. Human virtues arose from practical, real-world experiences and needs
4. Atheism and Religious Skepticism
   1. Viewed gods as personifications of natural phenomena rather than divine beings
5. Cultural Development
   1. Religion was part of a broader narrative of social institutions and moral values
   2. Early humans first worshipped physical entities crucial for survival
   3. They deified exceptional individuals who invented useful things
6. Relativism
   1. What is good for one person may not be good for another

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Hippias (c. 460–c. 399 BCE)

1. Nature
   1. There are unwritten natural laws that apply universally to all people.
2. “Like is kin to like by nature” 
   1. All men are neighbors and kinsmen.
3. Positive law
   1. Positive laws are a human construct that can be altered.
   2. They can potentially act as a “tyrant” against human nature.
4. Unity of all mankind
   1. Advocated for the essential unity of all mankind.
   2. A progenitor of the doctrine of natural law and the social-contract theory of the state.
5. Self-sufficiency
   1. Wore only items he had made himself.
6. Greek Literature
   1. Focused on the meaning of words, the value of rhythm, and literary style.

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Leucippus (fl. 5th century BCE) 

1. Atoms and Void: Both atoms (indivisible particles) and the void (empty space) are infinite.
2. Mechanical Materialism: all phenomena could be explained through the motion and interaction of atoms.
3. Homogeneous Atoms: all atoms are qualitatively the same, differing only in shape and size1.
4. Eternal Motion: atoms are in constant motion, creating a deterministic world where everything is caused by atomic collisions.
5. Cosmic Formation: cosmos began as a vortex of atoms that formed celestial bodies. 
6. Response to Eleatic Philosophy: By accepting the existence of the void, Leucippus could explain motion and plurality2.
7. Necessity: a law of necessity governed all things in nature.

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Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 BC)

1. Atomic Theory: tiny, indivisible eternal particles moving through empty space.
2. Natural Laws: all events are governed by natural laws—sensory data and reason
3. Materialism: There is no divine intervention or command.
4. Ethics: ethical behavior stems from understanding the consequences of one’s actions.
5. Perception: perception occurs when atoms from external objects interact with the atoms in the soul. 
6. Knowledge: sensory experiences are subjective interpretations rather than objective realities.
7. Cosmology: there are infinite worlds in various stages of development within an infinite universe. 

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