Reference: SC: Psychology
NOTE: Text in color contains Vinaire’s comments.
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Medieval Foundations (11th–14th Centuries)
Medieval Western psychology operated within a Christian-Aristotelian synthesis that viewed the psyche as fundamentally embodied. The rational soul served as the “form” of the body, with mental processes understood as integrated physiological-psychological phenomena rather than purely mental events. This period established crucial conceptual foundations:
Mind-Body Integration: Unlike later Cartesian dualism, medieval thinkers understood cognition as a two-part process where physiological brain mechanisms mirrored rational soul processes, with neither reducible to the other. Observations of head injuries confirmed Galen’s localization of rational aspects in the brain, though popular notions of the heart as the seat of understanding persisted.
Emotion Theory: Emotions (passions) were conceived as natural responses of the sensitive appetite to external events, neither inherently good nor evil until directed by reason and will. This contrasted sharply with the Stoic view that emotions constituted disturbances requiring elimination. Medieval literature, such as Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde, depicted love-sickness as both mental and bodily illness, with psychosomatic symptoms reflecting the integrated nature of affective experience.
Faculty Psychology: William of Ockham (1317–1349) revolutionized psychological theory by unifying the rational soul with its faculties. Rejecting previous distinctions between soul and rational powers, Ockham argued for identity between the soul’s essence and its capacities. His principle of ontological parsimony—commonly called Occam’s Razor—eliminated unnecessary multiplication of entities in psychological explanation. Ockham further developed the concept of intuitive cognition, a uniquely human awareness that perceived objects exist and possess particular qualities, bridging sensory data and intellectual understanding.
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Renaissance Transformation (15th–16th Centuries)
The Renaissance marked psychology’s emergence from purely metaphysical speculation toward empirical observation, driven by humanist emphasis on individual personality and the printing press’s dissemination of knowledge.
Empirical Methodology: Juan Luis Vives (1493–1540) pioneered observational psychology in his De anima et vita (1538), applying analytical methods that prefigured Bacon and Descartes. Vives advanced several revolutionary concepts:
- Physiological Psychology: He maintained that mental capacities depended on bodily temperament, arguing maladaptive behavior could be treated as physical illness requiring medical care rather than moral condemnation.
- Faculty Analysis: Vives systematically examined the soul’s three faculties—mind, will, and memory—while exploring topics from sleep and dreams to longevity.
- Emotion Theory: Rejecting Stoic suppression of emotions, Vives viewed them as essential constituents of human life, natural responses to how things appear.
Therapeutic Humanism: Vives advocated compassionate treatment of mental disorders, prescribing individualized instruction for mild cases and medical intervention for severe conditions. This humane approach contrasted with medieval harshness and anticipated modern therapeutic ethics.
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Enlightenment Systematization (17th–18th Centuries)
The Enlightenment crystallized psychology’s shift toward scientific rationalism, establishing foundational concepts for modern experimental psychology.
Philosophical Revolution: Descartes’ Cogito ergo sum (1637) and Newton’s Principia (1687) provided methodological templates for analyzing mental phenomena through reason and empirical evidence. Enlightenment thinkers synthesized 17th-century rationalist metaphysics (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) with British empiricism (Locke, Hume), creating hybrid frameworks for understanding human nature.
Emotion Theory Development: Seventeenth and eighteenth-century philosophers developed sophisticated analyses of emotions (passions, affects), often employing hydraulic models where pains and pleasures pushed ideas through associative mechanisms. Key developments included:
- Spinoza and Descartes: Both sought “remedies” for passions through rational control, viewing emotional regulation as central to virtue and happiness.
- Associationist Psychology: Hume and others developed “Newtonian” ambitions for a “science of man,” explaining emotions through principles of association.
- Moral Sentiment Theory: Rousseau traced emotional genesis through social structure changes, while other thinkers emphasized cultivation of moral sentiments.
Medical Model Advancement: By the 18th century, mental illness treatment increasingly paralleled physical medicine. Harsh treatment gave way to compassionate care, with comprehensive approaches incorporating nutrition, exercise, sleep, emotional regulation, and environmental hygiene. The stigma surrounding mental illness diminished as pathological conditions were viewed through medical rather than moral frameworks.
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